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eISSN 2631-2859

kronos.idiomas@uce.edu.ec

REVISTA KRONOS

INSTITUTO ACADÉMICO DE IDIOMAS REVISTA KRONOS

UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR 4(1), febrero-julio 2023, pp. 31-42

DOI: https://doi.org/10.29166/kronos.v4i1.4246

CC BY-NC 4.0 —Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional

Sandra González González | Universidad Nacional de Educación (Ecuador)

abstract

Service-learning constitutes a relatively new activity in Ecuadorian higher education contexts, which aims to

provide the community in need with a service while the participating undergraduate students learn about their future

profession while practicing in real contexts. This article presents the importance of changes and reection that the afore-

mentioned Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extranjeros (PINE) students experienced during the service-learn-

ing practices included in their curriculum. Apprentices who participated in this research were invited to an in-depth

interview. They were asked to tell their stories and experiences during their involvement in projects where they taught

English to children from 5 to 11 years old in a virtual modality in dierent PINE programs in the last year. These in-

terviews were later analyzed using the narrative analysis method in its content analysis form, which consists of listen-

ing to the testimonies, after recording, transcribing, and coding them, extracting only the most relevant information for

the research from students’ narratives. After analyzing the interviews, the data showed that PINE students, after a time

frame of participating in the aforementioned activities, experienced plenty of changes in their practices when it comes

to their professional training linked to the community and reection played a key role in that process. After the analysis,

the results show that students’ exposure to service-learning practices greatly inuenced their perceptions about teach-

ing and the practices they consider important during formal instruction.

key

words

Service-learning, English education, reection, undergraduate education, community service, vocational training.

fecha de recepción 22/11/2022 fecha de aprobación 18/01/2023

Reexión sobre las actividades de servicio a la comunidad: inuencia de la enseñanza-

aprendizaje a través de actividades de servicio a la comunidad en estudiantes de pregrado

resumen El aprendizaje-servicio constituye una actividad relativamente nueva en los contextos de educación superior

ecuatoriana, donde el objetivo es brindar un servicio a la comunidad necesitada mientras los estudiantes de pregrado

participantes aprenden sobre su futura profesión, ejerciendo la misma en contextos reales. Este artículo presenta la im-

portancia de los cambios y la reexión que los estudiantes de Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extranjeros (PINE),

antes mencionados, experimentaron durante las prácticas de servicio comunitario (guiado por el aprendizaje-servicio)

incluidas en su malla curricular. Los aprendices fueron invitados a una entrevista en profundidad. Se les pidió que con-

taran sus historias y experiencias durante su participación en proyectos donde enseñaron inglés a niños de 5 a 11 años

virtualmente en diferentes programas del PINE en el último año. Estas entrevistas fueron posteriormente analizadas

A reection on community-service activities: Inuence of

teaching-learning through community-service activities in

undergraduate students

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A reection on community-service activities: Inuence of teachinglearning through community-service activities in undergraduate students

utilizando el método de análisis narrativo empleando el análisis de contenido, que consiste en escuchar los testimonios,

luego de grabarlos, transcribirlos y codicarlos, extrayendo de las narrativas obtenidas la información más relevante para

la investigación. Después del análisis de las entrevistas, los datos mostraron que los estudiantes del PINE, luego de un

tiempo participando en estas actividades, experimentaron muchos cambios en sus prácticas referentes a su formación

profesional vinculada a la comunidad y que la reexión jugó un papel vital durante el proceso. Después del análisis, los

resultados muestran que la exposición de los estudiantes a las prácticas de aprendizaje-servicio inuyó signicativa-

mente en sus percepciones sobre la enseñanza y las prácticas que consideran importantes durante la instrucción formal.

palabras

clave

Aprendizaje-servicio, educación en inglés, reexión, educación de pregrado, servicio comunitario, for-

mación profesional.

INTRODUCTION

Helping our communities has been considered a valuable service throughout the years,

and adding that people can learn from those forms of serving during their formal instruc-

tion is revolutionary. Students, after learning in real contexts, are called to use those un-

derstandings in their profession in the future, which clearly constitutes an innovative way

of teaching in instructional settings. This is how the concept of service-learning was born

and adopted by educational institutions around the world. Service-learning has been rec-

ognized as one of the methods to enhance students’ skills beyond classroom environments

and make connections with their communities by understanding education yonder the of-

cial curriculum (Bruce‐Davis & Chancey, 2012). However, we need to start explaining

how service learning is dened. The most accepted and cited denition corresponds to

Bringle & Hatcher (1996):

A credit-bearing educational experience in which students participate in an organized service activity

that meets identied community needs and reects on the service activity in such a way as to gain

further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced

sense of civic responsibility. (p. 222)

Once the concept has been dened, it is clear that using service-learning establishes sturdy

parameters to simultaneously help three main actors: Students who need to practice their

skills and abilities in real contexts, teachers who need to propitiate immersive scenarios

for their pupils to reect on their undergraduate track, and the communities who are the

stakeholders of the services that the two aforementioned actors perform in order to cover

the dierent needs they have at the time of executing the projects. Applying this method-

ology promises to not just help the students in their forthcoming careers but also enlight-

en them about the realities in contexts that are dierent from their own.

Based on the concept of this method, universities in Ecuador have applied this activity

in their curriculum in the last years; a private university in the north of the country was

the rst one to include it in their General Education Program (Universidad San Francis-

co de Quito, 2022). Following this path, a public university located in the south of the

country asks students to complete 144 community-service activities (adapted from the

service-learning methodology) hours through outreaching programs; therefore, students

from the Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extranjeros (pine) major need to com-

plete this amount of time in 3 semesters (48 hours each). With this aim, students from the

lower semesters are included in various programs, one of them where they teach English

to children from 5 to 11 years old. In the last 2 years, these activities were implemented

through a virtual modality due to the Covid-19 pandemic in 2019.

These service-learning projects implemented by the aforementioned university aim to serve the com-

munity, create consciousness about their needs, introduce students to teaching scenarios, and make them

reect on their practices. Procee (2006) enounced that professionals from dierent spheres,

including teachers, need to be skillful about reection processes to improve and be pro-

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Sandra González

fessional and self-condent about their practices. Additionally, he states that “in education,

formal learning and reection are complementary activities. It would be inappropriate to

consider these two activities as competing aspects” (Procee, 2006). Therefore, it is not odd

that higher education institutions wanted to implement these activities to help students

develop a better competence in their teaching-learning practices and encourage reection

about their performance during these activities.

In the light of the importance of reection, the researcher found it signicant to

explore students’ thoughts and reections about the programs where they participated.

Hence, a study was carried out with two students who narrated their stories and experi-

ences about their time participating in service-learning practices and how it inuenced

their lives, practices, and attitudes towards education, community, and vocational training.

This study sought to answer the following research question: What are the changes

that pine students experienced during their service-learning?

METHODOLOGY

The methodology used for this study was a narrative inquiry, which blends the view of

particularities of people’s experiences and the possibility of an inquiry into these experi-

ences to have an inside interpretation of them in a specic time and context (Clandinin

& Caine, 2008). Recognizing that a narrative contains a story relevant to the narrator

and the audience, we can understand that this methodology has a valid source of infor-

mation (Moen, 2006). “Narrative analysis takes stories as its primary source of data and

examines the content, structure, performance, or context of such narratives considered as

a whole” (Wells, 2011). Furthermore, the familiarity students felt when talking to the in-

terviewer was an important matter since, according to Savin-Baden & Niekerk (2007),

“when using narrative inquiry it is important that the researcher is not only able to ask

questions that elicit stories but also that she/he is able to position her/himself so that sto-

ries can be analyzed eectively”. Taking this as a basis, the present study was carried out

with two students who narrated their experiences during their participation in these proj-

ects related to service-learning during the last two years and reected on their experienc-

es during that period.

DATA COLLECTION

An in-depth interview guide was prepared and applied to two students who participated

in two dierent programs in the pine major from April 2020 until April 2022 during the

covid-19 pandemic, which was why these programs were executed in a virtual modality.

The programs taught English to children from 5 to 11 years old for around 3 months and

camps that lasted about a month.

Students were prompted to tell their own stories about their participation in the dif-

ferent projects with no restriction, which was helpful since, according to Francis (2018),

using the narrative approach can give the researcher a deeper understanding of the subjects’

insights and their personal stories. Five open-ended questions were asked to the participants

so they allowed individuals to include any type of information they considered relevant ac-

cording to their personal opinions and experiences. The researcher spent around 5 minutes

with each participant to get them ready for the questions answered. The interviews lasted

around 30 minutes each, and they were audio-recorded. Participants used their mother

tongue (Spanish) since they felt more comfortable using their rst language to express their

understandings and ideas without any constraint of lack of vocabulary or uency.

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A reection on community-service activities: Inuence of teachinglearning through community-service activities in undergraduate students

The students’ narratives started with their very rst moments enrolling in the service-learn-

ing project, their feelings, and expectations about it and then, they continued talking about

their experiences while they were involved in the activities and how their skills and abil-

ities started to change. Here it was evident that they went through a process where they

embraced progression and improvement from the dierent events that occurred during

their permanency in the program. Finally, they ended the interview by stating the experi-

ences that marked them and how they remember their participation in the projects. Lat-

er, the testimonies were transcribed and coded, so the relevant information for the study

was translated into English. The data collection ended when the interviewees exhausted

all their answers. This was evidenced when their answers to follow-up questions turned

repetitive or very short. Once the interviews concluded, they were transcribed and coded

using the

maxqda software.

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

The data analysis started with the transcription of the obtained information from the indi-

viduals. Once the texts were available, the data analysis was based on the guidelines provid-

ed by Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, and Zilber (1998) and one of their four types of reading

a narrative: Categorical content perspective. This method, also known as “content analy-

sis,” was selected because the individuals’ stories can be read by taking into account just

the content and not the form of their stories. Therefore, the dierent utterances and top-

ics that could be mentioned can be “extracted, classied, and gathered into […] categories/

groups” (Lieblich et al., 1998).

After reading the transcripts several times, the process of coding was carried out using

the

maxqda

software. The coding was based on stressing the ideas that were repeated or

similar in the testimonies of the two students who participated in the study. Highlighting

the comparable narratives from the students allowed the researcher to identify dierent

aspects that were repeated in both testimonies. Therefore, these pieces of information

were used through the content analysis method to detach them from the story itself and

compare them to their parallel ones, extracted from the other student. This process showed

that individuals who were part of this research went through alike experiences while they

were part of the service-learning programs.

It is important to evidence that due to the similar stories narrated by the students

the researcher could nd, analyze, and reect on the three categories that are explained

below (see Figure 1).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

IMPROVEMENT OF SKILLS IN TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESSES

It is important to mention that the students started this process when they were in the rst

and second semesters of the degree program when they performed this activity, so they

were merely starting their major studies when they participated in these projects. Never-

theless, participants expressed that during the time they belonged to the project, they were

able to enhance their skills in classroom management, especially the abilities regarding

their speaking skills and the facility to express themselves in front of the children. This

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Sandra González

matches the idea that one of the main things students improve in service-learning scenar-

ios is their condence (Prentice & Robinson, 2010).

Participant

, the rst student, told her story and started stating that she did not have

a clear idea about teaching itself. Her initial words said:

Service learning is not an activity I wanted to do per se. I joined it because I was told it was part of

my major curriculum. I did not have a clear idea of what teaching was, nor how to manage a group;

however, three semesters have passed, and I had the opportunity to practice and improve. It was dif-

cult initially because I was nervous, but later, you became more condent, and you can build trust

among the students. (Participant a, personal communication, May 18th, 2022)

Additionally, Participant

was also interviewed, and she provided the following insights

about the beginning of her service-learning participation:

I enrolled for this activity because I received a piece of advice saying that if I did not do it, I would be

in trouble. It was not the best way to say it. Nevertheless, after that, I actually enjoyed being part of

the program. Before the service-learning program, I would have said that it was just to complete my

curriculum hours, but after I was part of that, I do not see it like that anymore. (Participant b, personal

communication, May 19th, 2022)

These ndings contrast previous thoughts about education and teacher candidates since

some decades ago, it was thought that “most preservice teachers believe that they already

possess the attributes most important for successful teaching and that they will not have

to face the problems faced by most classroom teachers” (Pajares, 1993). Hence, we can

observe how the perception of education changed from ‘know-it-all’ proles to more re-

ective and conscious undergrad learners.

This is directly related to the motivation and willingness that pre-service teachers

have to acquire new learning (Ojala, 1997). For instance, if students felt that they already

knew how to manage a class or teach, they may not have been interested in being part

of the teaching program. However, contrary to that, students stated that their teaching

practices themselves changed when they got involved in the process:

Figure 1. Service-learning reection on chenges experienced by PINE students

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A reection on community-service activities: Inuence of teachinglearning through community-service activities in undergraduate students

At rst, I thought ‘I will be a teacher. I’ll stand in front of my students, and I will talk to them,’ but

now that I was already in front of a group, it is not just that. It is much more than that. It is preparing

material, catching their attention, and keeping everything on point because you need to care about

your students. It is not just lecturing them but being humans, understanding how it is that they learn

and what activities make them feel more comfortable. This process helped me improve my activities

as a future teacher and be more condent about myself. (Participant a, personal communication, May

18th, 2022)

Participant b contributed to this idea as well:

I think the main thing I improved was my patience. I used to be very impatient, but now I have worked

on that because I understand what I know they did not know, so I needed to be patient. Also, I learned

to be a teacher; I learned how to teach those kids and not just tell them when something is wrong

but explain to them and talk about their mistakes. I try to help them. I even had a notebook just for

this activity where I took notes of the words I needed to research because I did not know them, but I

wanted to give my students a quality class. (Participant

, personal communication, May 19th, 2022)

It is worth emphasizing that “the increasing prevalence of standards, high-stakes testing,

and outcomes assessment obscure the value of reection, and much else, from elds of vi-

sion” (Ward & McCotter, 2004); nonetheless, in this study, the researcher considered re-

ection as one of the critical results due to the nature of the research paper. Then, as the

third piece of information of this code, students revealed their reection on the practices

that they recognized to be faulty by proposing ideas to improve those areas:

I recognize that I need to improve things. I am studying my fourth semester yet, and there is a long

way to the top. Mainly, I would say that I need to improve my time management. In some classes, I

ended up not doing one or two activities that were planned because I did not manage the previous

activities correctly, and I was just focused on seeing my students having fun. In general, I think I have

to organize my classes better, especially in timing matters. (Participant A, personal communication,

May 18th, 2022)

I used to think that the topics for my students who were 10 to 11 years old could be the alphabet or

colors, but then my guide teacher suggested using routines and more complicated things, and at rst,

I thought it would be dicult, but then I learned they could do that and more. After the practice, I

recognized I used to be very bitter. Then, if there is another chance to enter this program, I would be

more dynamic and play more games because, in virtual education, it was sort of dicult to do that. In

a face-to-face program, I would be able to see them, and I would do my best. (Participant b, personal

communication, May 19th, 2022)

Students, according to their narratives, evinced that the changes in their views and reec-

tions did not appear from the very rst moment they were involved in the practice. Based

on their reections and stories, we can show it was part of a process where they gradually

acquired dierent skills, abilities, and awareness. After analyzing these testimonies, the key

codes that were constantly repeated included the words ‘dicult’, ‘improve’, and ‘learn’. As

an interesting fact, we can take these three codes to delimit the time frame that they went

through during their practices to notice the changes in their viewpoints.

According to the testimonies, it is evidenced that students at rst were afraid or un-

willing to be part of the proposed project and it was dicult for them to start the process

or follow the expected instructions for eective classes. Later, the ongoing practices pushed

them to learn how to teach, how to manage a class, and how to put into practice what

they already knew with the guidance of their teachers. Finally, based on what they already

knew, they identied opportunities to improve their performance based on the students’

interaction and the eectiveness of their classes according to their own reections on them.

Thus, based on this reection, we can remark on the transformative potential essence of

the service-learning experiences.

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MINDFULNESS ABOUT COMMUNITY NEEDS

For the students who participate in service activities, it is signicant to be aware of the is-

sues inuencing the stakeholder communities in outreach programs. Service-learning does

not only focus on enhancing students’ abilities but also on merging it with a service and

reection about the people who are beneciaries of the performed activities. Then, we can

highlight the importance of this by stating that “Scholarship on the learning outcomes of

service-learning emphasizes the importance of facilitating connections between the aca-

demic material and the service experience” (Blouin & Perry, 2009).

Based on this premise, the participants also reected on the outcomes they could

observe from their involvement. Hence, Participant a expressed that:

I think the beneciaries, besides us as students, were the people in our society. So giving these children

the opportunity to attend these classes, giving moms, who do not have enough economic resources to

access an English course for their kids, the chance to be part of this, I think is benecial. So in that

way, children can learn English.

From the previous testimony from Participant a, we can indicate that the student greatly

understood and implemented one of the main objectives of service-learning, which is the

awareness of providing a service to a community. Furthermore, this partaker has explored

the justice cause that some authors claim should be included in service-learning from a

political perspective (Lambright, 2008). Participant

, as well, commented on this partic-

ular characteristic of service-learning;

Some kids don’t really know many things about English. The rst group I had was from big schools

(from bigger cities and towns) and performed well, but the second group was from a smaller town,

and it was evident those kids needed more help. They did not know about colors or verbs that are very

frequent, and it made me realize there is a lot of need for the language in these places. (Participant b,

personal communication, May 19th, 2022)

An additional important feature revealed is that both students reected on their own needs

when they were kids and remembered their school experiences as not very pleasant, so

they reected on their own needs when they were school students and projected them

into their classes. Therefore, they expressed they wanted to change that in their lessons:

Sometimes, when I was a kid, and something happened, something like a stomachache or so, we as

children were afraid to tell the teacher. I used to think the teacher would scold me, and I did not say

anything. Now I think that children have needs and I need to talk to them, be their friend and know

how they feel because that is important in education.

When I was a kid, teachers were not patient with us. They used to shout at us, just tell us something

was wrong, and that was it. They never corrected us or gave us feedback. I tried to do it dierently

with my kids. I corrected them, I try to explain things well, and we have conversations. (Participant

b, personal communication, May 19th, 2022)

This last reection should help students understand that teachers, even when seen as g-

ures of authority and total respect for the kids, “are half-full vessels that need to be lled

with the knowledge of outside experts” (Oleson & Hora, 2014). Consequently, as future

teachers, participants reected on the needs their former teachers had so they do not re-

peat it with their students. From this experience, participants identied unknown problems

until then due to their lack of familiarity with some of the ill-fated backgrounds children

in the program had. Fortunately, these situations triggered their reection on the need to

help these stakeholders in teaching-learning English scenarios.

It is also worth mentioning that these pine students found out that English plays a key

role in people’s lives. They included phrases assuring English was important and that this

language opens doors, which can be also taken as an indicator that they learned the value

of not just learning a second language but teaching it to people who can take advantage of

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A reection on community-service activities: Inuence of teachinglearning through community-service activities in undergraduate students

it in future scenarios. As students of the pine major, it is a vital acknowledgment that can

help them reect on the service they provide adducing that this is one that only eectively

trained English teachers can make available.

INFLUENCE ON VOCATIONAL TRAINING

The primary decision of being a teacher may depend on many dierent variables such as

tilts toward kids, previously identied skills, political motivation, etc. Nonetheless, ser-

vice-learning can provide pre-service teachers motivation to ensure that they select the

right professional training. In the light of this discernment, participants talked about their

vocational training motivation and how it changed in this context:

These practices served as the basis of what was coming next. We’re studying to be teachers and this is

taking the rst steps toward there. This process caught my attention and made me want to be better. It

helped make me see myself in the future and say, ‘This is what I want to do, this is what I want to do for

a living, and this is what I want to work for”. (Participant a, personal communication, May 18th, 2022)

This was a beautiful experience as the kids helped me a lot. It widened my mind because, at rst,

I wanted to be a translator, but then I taught those kids and realized this is the place where I belong,

this is my vocation, and I want to culminate in this major. (Participant

, personal communication,

May 19th, 2022)

The previous statements agree with some other studies carried out in dierent majors re-

lated to education. For instance, a study about pre-service teachers of Physical Education

revealed that “positive direction students expressed about this service-learning experi-

ence and its inuence upon their continued desire to remain in the pete program with an

ambition to teach physical education provides some contribution toward a democracy of

meaningful learning through service” (Miller, 2012). It is also stated that this experience

“reinforced their call to teach” (Miller, 2012). Then, comparing this study to the previ-

ous participants’ testimonies, we can observe the desire of remaining in the same major

pursuing the selected career after experiencing rsthand teaching.

Connected to the realization of their vocation, students also expressed that there is

external motivation provided by dierent actors involved in the process. Some of these

groups are parents and guide teachers who are key in developing service-learning activities.

For example, the rst participant highlighted the role of parents in her motivation changes:

At the end of the course, some parents reached me and asked me to continue teaching their kids in

particular classes. I said no because I did not feel I was prepared for that yet, but it made me feel good

about myself because it told me I did a good job and other people recognized it. It made me feel proud

of myself. Parents trusted me, which is also part of being a good teacher. (Participant

, personal

communication, May 18th, 2022)

On the other hand, Participant

expressed that motivation also came from her guide teach-

er, who helped students in dierent situations:

I think our guide professor was always there for us, and it was important. He never left us ‘on seen’,

and he tried to help when there was any problem. He never blamed anything on us when anything

went wrong but tried to nd a solution. That was motivating. (Participant b, personal communication,

May 19th, 2022)

This last statement matches the claim that teacher educators should guide students in the

creation of principles when performing their educator roles and also help them build heu-

ristics from the dierent teaching-learning experiences. These actions will shape students’

decisions and proles as future teachers when they relate these experiences to real future

contexts (Whitney et al., 2013).

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Finally, students expressed their greater motivation that changed initial perceptions about

their profession came from the kids, expressing that:

When I started teaching my rst group, the kids were so participative that I loved to be in that class.

When it came to the second group, they were even more participative, and they talked to me telling

stories and expressing how they liked the classes. I could see myself in the future saying this is what

I want my students to feel, I will try to be their friend and address them in the best way possible.

(Participant a, personal communication, May 18th, 2022)

The kids helped me a lot all the time. They entered the classes because they wanted to learn; they liked

English and expressed it. When the course was over, they kept telling me not to go; they said they

loved me. This was amazing because I felt I did things well. This was the best experience, although I

cried a lot. (Participant b, personal communication, May 19th, 2022)

Reecting on the stories that the participants presented, it is revealed that they did not feel

inuenced only by the practice itself but also by the actors who were involved in the pro-

cess. Therefore, we can highlight that here it is evidenced that service-learning is “a so-

cial network setting that comprised of so many individuals; the community people, school

teachers/administrators, and students from dierent socio-cultural, background and loca-

tions” (Deba et al., 2014). Consequently, experiences are varied, multidimensional, and

likely to deliver diverse results about students’ changing their viewpoints about their prac-

tices depending on these variables.

The obtained information made it clear that students who participated in this study

found service-learning to be an experience that greatly inuenced their practices, although

they had to go through a process before the reection itself happened. Students evinced

they were afraid and even reluctant at the very beginning of their practices; however, as

time went by, they acknowledged that providing the community with a service while they

were learning and improving their performance as future teachers was even more valuable

than just learning in the university campus.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that the

pine

students who participated in this study experienced signif-

icant changes in their practices after exposure to service-learning activities. Their teach-

ing-learning skills, awareness of the community’s needs, and vocational training were

greatly swayed depending on the dierent events happening around their performance

during their involvement in the dierent projects and following a time frame of evolution

during their participation. The value of activities like service learning in preparing stu-

dents for their future careers as a teacher is demonstrated in this research. Students found

out that their pre-conceptions and previously learned skills could be improved once they

met real contexts and practices. Abilities to teach, mindfulness of the community’s needs,

and motivation to pursue their vocational training were reinforced while they were part of

these projects. Nevertheless, as it can be observed, students need to be willing to acquire

innovative knowledge and reect on their performance while being part of service-learn-

ing programs so their learning can be meaningful.

Furthermore, comparing these outcomes to other studies evinced that service-learning

is a powerful tool to introduce pre-service teachers or professionals to their future real job

scenarios and identify if they selected the right career. Nonetheless, it is worth mentioning

that this study has some limitations since it cannot be generalized to other service-learning

practices due to the nature of the study and that the sources of information are individ-

uals who told their experiences from their point of view. Finally, for further research, it

is recommended that wider studies be carried out by analyzing the identied and coded

changes in categories using a larger sample to evidence service-learning’s impact.

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