INSTITUTO ACADÉMICO DE IDIOMAS
Vol.4, N.° 2 | agosto 2023-enero 2024
REVISTA KRONOS
Vol. 4, N.o 2 (agosto 2023-enero 2024)
the language teaching journal | instituto académico de idiomas
REVISTA KRONOS | Vol. 4, N.o 2 (agosto 2023-enero 2024) | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Kronos-The Language Teaching Journal, en su nueva temporada 2022, es una revista científica del Instituto Académico de Idiomas
de la Universidad Central del Ecuador de frecuencia bianual, que publica en los meses de febrero y agosto 2023. Su objetivo es la
divulgación científica, cuyos campos de investigación se concentran, pero no se limitan, a la búsqueda de metodologías alternativas y
novedosas en los procesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje de lenguas, así como en la investigación y crítica del corpus teórico y práctico
alrededor de la pedagogía, didáctica, tecnología y cultura. Kronos está dirigida a investigadores, docentes, estudiantes, profesionales, y
público interesado en el quehacer educativo.
AUTORIDADES UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR
rector Dr. Fernando Sempértegui Ontaneda, Ph. D.
vicerrector académico y de posgrado Dra. María Augusta Espín, Ph. D.
vicerrector de investigación, doctorados e innovación Dra. María Mercedes Gavilánez, Ph. D.
vicerrector administrativo y financiero Econ. Marco Posso Zumárraga
director del instituto académico de idiomas Santiago Sanguña, M.Sc.
DIRECCIÓN EDITORIAL
Evelyn Almeida García —Universidad Central del Ecuador-Instituto Académico de Idiomas (Ecuador)
CONSEJO EDITORIAL
Chita Espino-Bravo —Fort Hays State University (ee. uu.)
Xochithl Guadalupe Rangel Romero —Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí (México)
Gil Baillard —Pontifica Universidad Católica del Ecuador (Ecuador)
Mónica Tamayo —Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas, espe (Ecuador)
Andrés Baldassari —Universidad Central del Ecuador (Ecuador)
Hazel Acosta —Universidad Nacional de Educación (Ecuador)
Daniel Cazco —Universidad Nacional de Educación (Ecuador)
Andrea Rosero —Universidad Central del Ecuador (Ecuador)
Serge Bibauw —Ku Leuven (Bélgica), Universidad Central del Ecuador (Ecuador)
Diana Ruggiero —University of Memphis (ee. uu.)
Martina Nebbiai —Universidad Central del Ecuador (Ecuador)
Diego Bussola —Universidad Nacional de Rosario (Argentina)
Jorge Bernal —Universidad de Salamanca (España)
Marcia Criollo —Universidad Nacional de Loja (Ecuador)
Ítalo Carabajo —Universidad Estatal de la Península de Santa Elena (Ecuador)
José Campuzano —Universidad de Guayaquil (Ecuador)
COORDINACIÓN
Estefanía Llamuco Miño —Universidad Central del Ecuador (Ecuador)
Año 2023 | Vol. 4, N.o 2
Frecuencia: bianual (agosto 2023-enero 2024)
Año de inicio: 2018
Idioma: inglés y español
kronos.idiomas@uce.edu.ec
https://revistadigital.uce.edu.ec/index.php/KronosJournal/
Instituto Académico de Idiomas-UCE
Av. América y Av. Pérez Guerrero, s. n.
Código postal: 170521
Diseño y diagramación | Christian Echeverría
Corrección de textos | Marcelo Acuña
Portada | Christian Echeverría
Editorial Universitaria, 2023
Ciudadela Universitaria, av. América, s. n.
Quito, Ecuador
+593 (02) 2524 033
editorial@uce.edu.ec
https://www.uce.edu.ec/web/editorialuniversitaria
Los contenidos pueden usarse libremente, sin fines comerciales y siempre y cuando se cite la fuen-
te. Si se hacen cambios de cualquier tipo, debe guardarse el espíritu de libre acceso al contenido.
TABLA DE CONTENIDO
Vol. 4, N.o 2 (agosto 2023-enero 2024)
CARTA EDITORIAL ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
EDITORIAL LETTER ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7
The Effect of the PQ4R Strategy on EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension
at a Middle High School in Cuenca, Ecuador ................................................................................................................................ ................................... 9
William Chuquiguanga
Role-play as a didactic strategy enhancing the speaking skills
in High-School students ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Alisson Cruz, Mónica Vaca-Cárdenas
The influence of Comics in learning English Language during post pandemic period .................... 35
Erika Tenezaca, Paula Cisneros, Mateo Solorzano, Gabriela Escobar, Nicolás Barriga
Pilot Testing of Three English Texts at The National University of Education ........................................... 47
Verónica Herrera, Jéssica Ochoa, Carmen Morales, Axel Calle
Morphological Awareness for the Development of the
Lexical Competence of the English Language .................................................................................................................................................... 59
Carlos Díaz
Classroom Management Influence on English Acquisition in EFL A2 Students ........................................ 76
Boris Vásconez
Action Research: Promoting Speaking in EFL College Students ........................................................................................ 86
Evelyn Almeida, Andrea Rosero
The rise of AI in language education: a game changer for
teaching English as a foreign language in Ecuador ................................................................................................................................ 95
Jorge Quijano
Instrucciones para los autores. Política editorial ........................................................................................................................................ 103
5REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Una vez más, nos complace presentarles una nueva edición de la revista Kronos «The Lan-
guage Teaching Journal», un espacio dedicado a la exploración y difusión del conocimien-
to a través de la investigación. En esta ocasión, nos llena de entusiasmo la diversidad de
perspectivas y descubrimientos que ofrece el volumen cuatro, versión número dos, mis-
ma que cuenta con ocho artículos académicos, en donde cada página está impregnada con
la pasión y el rigor intelectual de aquellos que buscan comprender, cuestionar y mejorar
nuestro mundo a través del conocimiento.
Partiendo de esta premisa, en el primer artículo titulado «The effect of the pq4r strat-
egy on efl learners’ reading comprehension at a middle high school in Cuenca, Ecuador»,
William Chuquiguanga nos revela el impacto que tiene la estrategia de lectura pq4r en las
habilidades de comprensión de lectura de los estudiantes de inglés como lengua extran-
jera (efl) de décimo grado. El artículo explora cómo la aplicación de esta técnica no solo
incidió de manera significativa en la mejora de la habilidad de lectura del grupo control,
sino también en su comprensión general del contenido.
En el segundo artículo titulado «Role-play as a didactic strategy enhancing the speak-
ing skills, in high-school students», las autoras, Alisson Cruz y Mónica Vaca, proponen el
juego de roles como estrategia didáctica para mejorar las habilidades orales en estudiantes
de inglés como lengua extranjera en nivel secundario en Bahía de Caráquez. Los resultados
destacan que el juego de roles permite a los estudiantes explorar situaciones auténticas, en-
focarse en la comunicación en lugar de la gramática y reducir el estrés. Además, se sugiere
que los maestros pueden crear un entorno de apoyo para que los estudiantes practiquen el
habla, evalúen sus habilidades orales y fomenten la diversidad lingüística y la sensibilidad
cultural. En conclusión, los profesores de inglés en Bahía de Caráquez emplean el juego
de roles como una estrategia didáctica efectiva para mejorar las habilidades orales de los
estudiantes de inglés como lengua extranjera en secundaria.
El tercer artículo, titulado «The influence of comics in learning english language
during the post-pandemic period», aborda los cambios en los hábitos de aprendizaje de
estudiantes ecuatorianos después de la pandemia. Los investigadores, Erika Tenezaca, Paula
Cisneros, Mateo Solórzano, Gabriela Escobar y Nicolás Barriga, destacan la utilidad de las
tiras cómicas en la enseñanza de idiomas. El estudio se llevó a cabo en una escuela privada
en una de las principales ciudades de Ecuador, con la participación de 50 estudiantes. Los
resultados señalan la efectividad de los cómics en la enseñanza de vocabulario y gramática,
así como en la introducción de conceptos como modales y pronombres. Además, demues-
tran la transformación de la voz directa a indirecta en los diálogos.
Verónica Herrera, Jéssica Ochoa, Carmen Morales y Axel Calle, autores del cuarto
artículo titulado «Pilot testing of three english texts at the National University of Educa-
tion», llevaron a cabo una comparación entre tres textos de inglés (Touchstone, English
File y Headway) en el contexto de inglés como lengua extranjera (efl). La investigación,
un estudio cuasiexperimental, recopiló datos cuantitativos y cualitativos mediante pruebas
previas y posteriores a los estudiantes, encuestas y listas de verificación para los profe-
sores. Los resultados indicaron que English File fue la opción más efectiva, ya que los
estudiantes demostraron un mejor aprendizaje y aumento en sus conocimientos de inglés
en comparación con los otros dos libros de texto. Además, los profesores coincidieron en
que English File resultó más útil debido a la variedad de recursos que reducen el tiempo
de planificación.
CARTA EDITORIAL
CARTA EDITORIAL
6 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Carlos Díaz, autor del quinto artículo titulado «Morphological awareness for the devel-
opment of the lexical competence of the english language», aborda las limitaciones en el
dominio del vocabulario de estudiantes de inglés como segunda lengua. Su investigación
examina la relación entre la conciencia morfológica y la competencia léxica mediante en-
foques socioeducativos y bibliográficos. La revisión, basada en análisis de bases de datos
y filtros manuales, revela que la conciencia morfológica impacta significativamente en la
mejora de la competencia léxica en inglés, abordando aspectos de amplitud, profundidad y
organización del vocabulario. La comprensión de formas flexivas, derivativas y compues-
tas contribuye al reconocimiento y comprensión de palabras, facilitando su clasificación y
orden. Los resultados indican que los educadores pueden aplicar técnicas centradas en la
inflexión, derivación y composición léxica para elevar la competencia léxica de los estudi-
antes y mejorar su dominio del inglés, aprovechando así la conciencia morfológica.
En el sexto artículo, el investigador Boris Vásconez, en su estudio titulado «Classroom
management influence on english acquisition in efl a2 students», examina el impacto de
una nueva metodología de gestión académica en la adquisición del nivel de inglés a2 en el
entorno educativo. La investigación se fundamenta en un enfoque constructivista y utiliza
la metodología Suggestopedia, centrándose específicamente en estudiantes que no logran
alcanzar la certificación a2 Key (Ket). El estudio sigue un diseño cuasiexperimental con dos
grupos, experimental y de control, seleccionados de manera aleatoria. Los resultados indican
la necesidad de incorporar un modelo de gestión de aula que contemple elementos como mo-
tivación, gestión del tiempo y diseño físico para potenciar el rendimiento de los estudiantes.
En el séptimo artículo, «Action research: promoting speaking in efl college students»,
Evelyn Almeida y Andrea Rosero lideran un proyecto de investigación de acción para
mejorar la participación y fluidez en la expresión oral en inglés. Implementaron cuatro
estrategias: trabajo grupal colaborativo, estrategia de entrada, actividades interactivas y
retroalimentación correctiva. Los resultados indican un aumento en la confianza y fluidez
de los estudiantes al expresar opiniones y compartir sentimientos, con una reducción de
errores de pronunciación en temas específicos durante el curso de siete semanas.
Finalmente, el octavo artículo titulado «The rise of ai in language education: a game
changer for teaching english as a foreign language in Ecuador», Jorge Quijano examina
el impacto de la inteligencia artificial (ia), específicamente Chatgpt, en la enseñanza de
inglés como lengua extranjera en Ecuador. Destaca la importancia del pensamiento crítico
y de orden superior en el aprendizaje de idiomas, explorando tanto los beneficios como
las limitaciones de la ia en el aula, con énfasis en conceptos técnicos de la ia generativa.
Quijano resalta la necesidad de profesores capacitados para adaptarse a la tecnología y
brindar experiencias de aprendizaje significativas. El artículo plantea interrogantes sobre
el futuro de la educación en un entorno impulsado por la ia, destacando el potencial de la
ia para mejorar la enseñanza y el aprendizaje. Aunque la ia puede hacer que la enseñanza
sea más eficiente, se enfatiza que los profesores siguen siendo indispensables. Aunque la ia
en la educación lingüística está en sus primeras etapas en Ecuador, se están desarrollando
iniciativas prometedoras con el potencial de mejorar la calidad educativa.
7REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
EDITORIAL LETTER
Once again we are pleased to present a new edition of Kronos «The Language Teaching
Journal», a place dedicated to the exploration and sharing of knowledge through research.
On this opportunity, we are excited by the diversity of perspectives and discoveries of-
fered in volume four, version two, which includes eight academic articles, where each page
is marked with the passion and intellectual rigor of those who seek to understand, ques-
tion, and improve our world through knowledge.
Considering the previous, the first article titled «The Effect of the pq4r Strategy on efl
Learners’ Reading Comprehension at a Middle High School in Cuenca, Ecuador», William
Chuquiguanga shows the impact of the pq4r strategy on the reading comprehension skills
of tenth graders in English as a foreign language learners (efl). The article explores how
the application of this technique not only had a significant impact on the improvement of
the reading skills of the control group but also their overall comprehension of the content.
In the second article titled «Role-play as a Didactic Strategy Enhancing the Speak-
ing Skills, in High-School Students» the authors Alisson Cruz and Mónica Vaca present
role-play as a didactic strategy to improve speaking skills in secondary-level esl students
in Bahía de Caráquez. The results highlight that role-playing allows students to explore
authentic situations, focus on communication instead of grammar, and reduce stress. In
addition, it is recommended that teachers create a supportive environment for students to
practice speaking, assess their oral skills, and foster linguistic diversity and cultural sen-
sitivity. In conclusion, English teachers in Bahía de Caráquez employ role-playing as an
effective teaching strategy to improve secondary esl students’ speaking skills.
The third article, called «The Influence of Comics in Learning English Language
During the Post-Pandemic Period», addresses changes in the learning habits of Ecuador-
ian students after the pandemic. The researchers, Erika Tenezaca, Paula Cisneros, Mateo
Solorzano, Gabriela Escobar, And Nicolás Barriga, highlight the value of comic strips in
language teaching. The study was carried out in a private school in one of the main cities
of Ecuador, with the participation of 50 students. The results point to the effectiveness of
comics in teaching vocabulary and grammar, as well as in introducing concepts such as
manners and pronouns. Moreover, they demonstrate the transformation from direct to
indirect voice in dialogues.
Verónica Herrera, Jessica Ochoa, Carmen Morales, and Axel Calle, authors of the
fourth article titled «Pilot Testing of Three English Texts at The National University of
Education», conducted a comparison of three English texts (Touchstone, English File, and
Headway) in the context of English as a Foreign Language (efl). The research, a qua-
si-experimental study, collected quantitative and qualitative data through student pre and
post-tests, surveys, and teacher checklists. The results showed that English File was the
most effective option, with students demonstrating better learning and increased English
proficiency compared to the other two textbooks. In addition, teachers agreed that English
File was more useful because of the variety of resources that reduce planning time.
Carlos Díaz, the author of the fifth article titled «Morphological Awareness for the
Development of the Lexical Competence of the English Language», addresses the limita-
tions in the vocabulary proficiency of English as second language learners. Their research
explores the relationship between morphological awareness and lexical competence
through socio-educational and bibliographic approaches. The review, based on database
analysis and manual filters, reveals that morphological awareness impacts significantly im-
proving lexical competence in English addressing aspects of vocabulary range, depth, and
EDITORIAL LETTER
8 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
organization. Understanding inflectional, derivational, and compound forms contributes
to word recognition and comprehension, facilitating their categorization and ordering.
The results show that educators can apply techniques focused on inflection, derivation,
and lexical compounding to raise students’ lexical competence and improve their English
proficiency, thereby taking advantage of morphological awareness.
In the sixth article, the researcher Boris Vásconez, in his study entitled «Classroom
Management Influence on English Acquisition in efl a2 Students», examines the impact
of a new academic management methodology on the acquisition of a2-level English in the
educational environment. The research is based on a constructivist approach and uses the
Suggestopedia methodology, focusing specifically on students who failed to achieve a2 Key
(Ket). The study follows a quasi-experimental design with two randomly selected groups,
the experimental and the control one. The results show the need to include a classroom
management model that considers elements such as motivation, time management, and
physical design to enhance students’ performance.
In the seventh article, «Action Research: Promoting Speaking in efl College Students»,
Evelyn Almeida and Andrea Rosero lead an action research project to improve partici-
pation and fluency in English speaking. They applied four strategies: collaborative group
work, lead-in strategy, interactive activities, and corrective feedback. Results show an
increase in students’ confidence and fluency in expressing opinions and sharing feelings,
with a decrease in pronunciation errors on specific topics during the seven-week course.
Finally, in the eighth article called «The Rise of ai in Language Education: A Game
Changer for Teaching English as a Foreign Language in Ecuador», Jorge Quijano considers
the impact of artificial intelligence (ai), specifically Chatgpt, on the teaching of English
as a foreign language in Ecuador. He highlights the importance of critical and higher-or-
der thinking in language learning, exploring both the benefits and limitations of ai in the
classroom, with an emphasis on technical concepts of generative ai. Quijano emphasizes
the need for skilled teachers to adapt to the technology and provide meaningful learning
experiences. The article raises questions about the future of education in an ai-driven en-
vironment, highlighting the potential of ai to improve teaching and learning. While ai can
make teaching more efficient, it is emphasized that teachers remain essential. Although
ai in language education is in its early stages in Ecuador, promising initiatives are being
developed with the potential to improve quality education.
pISSN 12631-2840
eISSN 2631-2859
kronos.idiomas@uce.edu.ec
REVISTA KRONOS
INSTITUTO ACADÉMICO DE IDIOMAS REVISTA KRONOS
UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR 4(2), agosto 2023 enero 2024, pp. 9-20
DOI: https://doi.org/10.29166/kronos.v4i1.4316
CC BY-NC 4.0 —Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional
© 2023 Universidad Central del Ecuador
William Chuquiguanga | Universidad Nacional de Educación, UNAE (Ecuador)
abstract This research paper aims to investigate the impact of the PQ4R reading strategy on the reading comprehen-
sion abilities of tenth-grade EFL students. The study involved thirty-two middle high school students and used a quan-
titative experimental approach with a pre-experimental design that involved a one-group pre-test-post-test design. The
students were administered a Cambridge A2 reading test as a pretest and post-test. A pretest was conducted before ad-
ministering the PQ4R reading strategy, and a post-test was conducted after the intervention to evaluate the strategy's ef-
fectiveness and measure the learners' progress. The results were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The
pretest results showed a low English reading performance among the participants, but after the intervention, the post-
test results revealed a significant improvement in their reading skills. The t-test for paired samples showed a significant
difference between the mean scores of the pretest and post-test. Cohen's d effect size value indicated a large effect of the
PQ4R strategy on learners' reading comprehension. These findings demonstrate the potential benefits of incorporating
practical language teaching methods, such as the PQ4R strategy, into EFL classes to enhance language acquisition and
comprehension in a foreign language context.
key words English learning, PQ4R reading strategy, students’ reading comprehension.
fecha de recepción 20/06/2023 fecha de aprobación 30/08/2023
El efecto de la estrategia PQ4R en la comprensión lectora de los estudiantes de inglés como
lengua extranjera en una escuela secundaria en Cuenca, Ecuador
resumen Este trabajo de investigación tiene como objetivo establecer el impacto de la estrategia de lectura PQ4R en
las habilidades de comprensión de lectura de los estudiantes de EFL de décimo grado. El estudio involucró a treinta y
dos estudiantes de secundaria y utilizó un enfoque experimental cuantitativo con un diseño preexperimental que in-
volucró un diseño de prueba previa y posterior de un grupo. A los estudiantes se les administró una prueba de lectura
Cambridge A2 como prueba previa y posterior. Se realizó una prueba previa antes de administrar la estrategia de lectu-
ra PQ4R y una prueba posterior después de la intervención para evaluar la eficacia de la estrategia y medir el progreso
de los alumnos. Los resultados se analizaron mediante estadística descriptiva e inferencial. Los resultados de la prueba
preliminar mostraron un bajo rendimiento de lectura en inglés entre los participantes, pero después de la intervención,
los resultados de la prueba posterior revelaron una mejora significativa en sus habilidades de lectura. La prueba t para
muestras pareadas mostró una diferencia significativa entre las puntuaciones medias del pretest y del postest. Además,
el valor del tamaño del efecto d de Cohen indicó un gran efecto de la estrategia PQ4R en la comprensión lectora de los
alumnos. Estos hallazgos demuestran los beneficios potenciales de incorporar métodos prácticos de enseñanza de idio-
mas, como la estrategia PQ4R, en las clases de EFL para mejorar la adquisición y comprensión del idioma en un con-
texto de idioma extranjero.
palabras clave Aprendizaje de inglés, estrategia de lectura PQ4R, comprensión lectora de los estudiantes.
The effect of the PQ4R strategy on EFL learners’ reading
comprehension at a middle high school in Cuenca, Ecuador
The Effect of the PQ4R Strategy on EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension at a Middle High School in Cuenca, Ecuador
10 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
INTRODUCTION
Learners must become proficient in reading comprehension to learn English as a foreign
language (efl) effectively. Several studies, including those by Saeedi et al. (2016), Brooks
et al. (2021), and Ruipérez (2022), have emphasized the importance of this skill. This
particular skill equips learners with the means to access and assimilate vital information
and knowledge, expand their lexicon and language skills, apply acquired abilities, attain ac-
ademic success, and foster a culture of continuous learning and self-improvement.
Learning a new language can be difficult, particularly for students learning English as
a foreign language. According to Mickan et al. (2023), learning a foreign language and a
new language can have different meanings depending on the context. However, based on
the search results, learning a «foreign language» refers to a language that is not native to
the speaker and is typically learned in a classroom setting. In contrast, learning a «new
language» refers to any language being learned for the first time, regardless of whether it
is native or foreign. Learning a new or foreign language involves acquiring new language
skills, such as vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and cultural understanding. This of-
ten requires formal instruction, practice, and exposure to the language through reading,
listening, speaking, and writing.
At the middle high school level, the efl Ecuadorian curriculum (2016) emphasizes the
importance of active strategies and collaborative group work to allow learners to construct
their learning rather than relying solely on direct instruction. The curriculum highlights the
need for efl teachers to apply active strategies in reading classes to enhance comprehen-
sion since students are expected to understand the main points in short, straightforward
texts on familiar topics and recognize shared vocabulary items between their first language
(l1) and English (l2). However, despite the support for using the most updated teaching
approaches and methodologies in the efl Ecuadorian curriculum, Ecuadorian efl teachers
mainly focus on using a structural approach (Burgin & Daniel, 2017; Álvarez & Ha, 2022).
Álvarez and Ha (2022) point out that Ecuadorian efl teachers still design their cur-
riculum by focusing more on teaching vocabulary words and grammar structures. The use
of this structural approach leaves apart the utilization of current and innovative teaching
methods, approaches, and strategies. This limited use of active and innovative strategies
when reading could explain why learners’ English reading comprehension remains mini-
mal. For this reason, the need to improve the current reading skill level by implementing
active and innovative learning strategies is increasingly widespread. In line with these
challenges, teachers require an effective strategy to allow students to comprehend what
they read and enjoy their learning process.
One effective strategy teachers can implement to improve the learning process is the
pq4r strategy. According to Dakhiel and Al sulami (2021), the pq4r strategy introduced
by Thomas E. L. and Robinson H. A. in their book «Improving Reading in Every Class: A
Sourcebook for Teachers» in 1972 is an effective method for enhancing reading abilities.
The acronym pq4r stands for Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review. This
strategy improves learners’ understanding, enhances their reading skills, helps them un-
derstand and remember what they read, and stimulates their prior knowledge. By applying
the pq4r strategy, students can understand and retain information more effectively.
Furthermore, according to Fitriani and Suhardi (2019), the pq4r strategy combines
previewing, questioning, reading, reciting, reflecting, and revising the reading material. The
preview step involves previewing the text to activate prior knowledge and establish an
overview of the content through scanning headings, subheadings, and visual aids. Learners
generate their own questions during the question step, which enhances their comprehension
and focus. In the reading step, learners read the text aiming to answer their questions and
comprehend the material in-depth while taking notes. The reflecting step involves attempt-
ing to understand the reading material by making connections to already familiar concepts.
William Chuquiguanga.
11REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
The reciting step involves learners summarizing the text’s main points in their own words,
reinforcing their understanding and retention. The reviewing step implicates revisiting the
material to consolidate learning and transfer the knowledge to long-term memory.
PREVIOUS STUDIES
Many studies have explored how effective the pq4r strategy is in enhancing reading com-
prehension. For instance, Al-Qawabeh et al. (2018) conducted a study to determine the
effectiveness of the pq4r strategy in teaching reading comprehension to ninth-grade Ara-
bic students in Jordan. A survey and an achievement test for reading comprehension were
used with 104 male and female students randomly selected into two experimental and
two control groups. The study found that using the pq4r strategy led to notable improve-
ments in the experimental group, especially for female students. Therefore, the study rec-
ommended incorporating the pq4r strategy into efl classes as it is valuable to enhance
reading comprehension.
Similarly, a classroom action research study by Zuriah (2020) aimed at improving the
reading comprehension achievement of 11th-grade students at sman 19 Palembang using
the pq4r strategy. The study was conducted in three cycles of classroom action research
to assess both effectiveness and student perception toward the pq4r strategy. Based on
the results, it was found that utilizing the pq4r reading strategy resulted in a significant
improvement in the students’ reading comprehension ability. In addition, it was inferred
that learners had positive perceptions toward the implemented strategy.
Likewise, another study was carried out by Dakhiel and Al sulami (2021) to assess
the efficacy of the pq4r strategy in enhancing the reading comprehension abilities of stu-
dents in the second-intermediate grade. The study employed a quasi-experimental design
and divided students into an experimental (using pq4r) and a control (using the tradition-
al method) group. The findings indicated that implementing the pq4r strategy can posi-
tively impact students’ reading comprehension. As a result, the researcher recommended
using this strategy to improve efl students’ reading comprehension skills.
Previous studies show that using the pq4r strategy can significantly enhance reading
comprehension. The literature indicates that by previewing, questioning, reading, reflecting,
reciting, and reviewing texts, learners can enhance their comprehension and vocabulary
acquisition, leading to remarkable success in their language learning journey.
JUSTIFICATION
Students often struggle with understanding and retaining the vast amount of information
presented in class due to their limited vocabulary, lack of background knowledge, and
inadequate reading strategies, as reported by Burgin & Daniel (2017), Nanda & Azmy
(2020), and Hezam et al. (2022). To overcome these obstacles, teachers and students
must adopt effective study strategies that facilitate information processing and retention.
However, according to Alvarez and Ha (2022), Ecuadorian efl teachers prioritize teach-
ing vocabulary words and grammar structures when designing their curriculum. Teach-
ers must implement an effective strategy for students to comprehend what they read and
enjoy the learning process. One effective strategy teachers can implement to improve the
learning process is the pq4r strategy.
Despite the proven effectiveness of the pq4r strategy in various efl contexts, further
research is needed in Ecuador to determine its impact on the English reading compre-
hension of Ecuadorian learners. In order to fill the knowledge gap and contribute to the
The Effect of the PQ4R Strategy on EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension at a Middle High School in Cuenca, Ecuador
12 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
existing literature, the present pre-experimental research study was conducted using the
pq4r strategy as an intervention in reading classes. Therefore, this research paper aims to
answer the following research question: What is the effect of applying the pq4r strategy
on the tenth-grade efl learners’ reading comprehension at a middle high school in Cuenca,
Ecuador? In addition, the study proposed the null and alternative hypotheses as follows:
HN = the pq4r strategy does not affect tenth-grade learners’ reading comprehension skills.
HA = the pq4r strategy does affect tenth-grade learners’ reading comprehension skills.
METHOD
This study seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of the pq4r strategy in enhancing the read-
ing comprehension skills of middle-high school efl learners. The researcher employed a
quantitative experimental method and utilized a pre-experimental design to determine the
impact of the pq4r strategy on efl students’ reading comprehension achievement. Thyer
(2012) states that pre-experimental designs concentrate on analyzing a single group of
individuals who have undergone a particular social work intervention, which is the main
focus of the study and are identified as the treatment group.
As only one tenth-grade classroom was available during the morning session at the
high school where the study was conducted, the researcher designated this class as the
treatment group. Therefore, a one-group pretest-posttest design was employed to gather
and analyze data since no control group was available for comparison. According to Thy-
er (2012), Fernández and Baptista (2013), and Creswell (2013), this design involves
assessing participants on two separate occasions, the initial assessment (pretest) and the
subsequent evaluation conducted after undergoing treatment (post-test). Ultimately, the
post-test results were compared to the pretest outcomes to identify any changes.
PARTICIPANTS
This research was conducted at a public high school in Cuenca, Ecuador, in the academic
year 2022-2023. Thirty-two tenth-grade students aged 15-16 participated in the present
pre-experimental research study. A contextualization journal determined that all partici-
pants were homogeneous in terms of ethnicity, native language, exposure to English, and
educational and cultural background.
INSTRUMENTS
The primary research tool used in the study was a reading test administered before and
after the intervention to measure students’ reading comprehension. Specifically, a Cam-
bridge a2 reading test (Ket reading test), consisting of parts one to five, was used as both
the pretest and post-test. The researcher chose the Ket reading test since this standardized
exam reflects real-life language skills and the understanding of specific information, such
as getting the main message and idea from text and correctly using vocabulary words. Fi-
nally, students were evaluated using the same criteria as the international exam.
William Chuquiguanga.
13REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
PROCEDURE
Before the pre-experimental study began, a pre-reading test was applied to the participants.
This first test aimed to measure the initial ability of students. Then, during eight weeks
and three hours of English instruction each week, the efl instructor utilized lesson plans
guided by the pq4r strategy. These lesson plans incorporated pre-, while, and post-reading
discussions and exercises focusing on enhancing reading comprehension abilities, such as
predicting text content, skimming and scanning for answers, reading for detail, summa-
rizing main points, identifying the meaning of the text, and making inferences. Lastly, at
the end of the study, another reading test was administered to the control and experimen-
tal group. This test served as a means of measuring the students’ progress and provided
valuable data for further analysis and interpretation.
DATA ANALYSIS
The researcher analyzed and interpreted the pre- and post-reading comprehension test
data using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (spss) and Minitab software. First, de-
scriptive statistics such as mean scores, minimum and maximum scores, and standard de-
viations of the pre and post-test were used to determine the effects of the pq4r strategy on
reading comprehension. Second, the researcher conducted an inferential analysis that in-
cluded a t-student test for paired samples to determine any significant differences between
the pretest and post-test mean scores. The decisions were made with a significance of 5%
(p < 0.05). Lastly, to quantify the effectiveness of using the pq4r strategy, the effect size
of the difference between the pre and post-test scores was calculated and reported using
the effect size «d» suggested by Cohen (1992). The effect size was then interpreted based
on the guidelines by Fernández and Baptista (2013), where a 0.20 value indicates a small
effect, 0.50 shows a medium effect size, and 0.80 represents a large effect.
RESULTS
This study aimed to investigate the effect of using the pq4r strategy on reading compre-
hension among efl students. In addition, the study aimed to test the alternative hypothesis,
which states that the use of the pq4r strategy does affect reading comprehension. Con-
versely, the null hypothesis was proposed to test if the pq4r strategy does not affect learn-
ers’ reading comprehension skills.
PRETEST AND POSTTEST RESULTS
Before implementing the pq4r strategy, the pretest was administered to determine and mea-
sure the initial learners’ reading performance. As shown in Figure 1, all participants’ pre-
test results showed a mean score of 5.25 (out of 10) with a standard deviation of 0.92.
In addition, the pretest results indicated that the minimum score was 3.50 and the max-
imum score was 7.0. All this indicated that the group was in similar reading conditions;
in other words, they had low English reading performance before implementing the pq4r
strategy (see Figure 1).
The Effect of the PQ4R Strategy on EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension at a Middle High School in Cuenca, Ecuador
14 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
On the other hand, the post-test was taken a week after the end of applying the pq4r strate-
gy, and it was taken to measure to what extent learners improved their reading comprehen-
sion ability. The post-test results showed that the experimental group’s mean was 7.25 (out
of 10), with a standard deviation of 1.00. Moreover, the results showed a minimum score
of 5.50 and a maximum score equal to 9.0, as shown in figure following (see Figure 2).
Before conducting inferential statistical analysis, it is important to assess the normal-
ity and homogeneity of the data. The data must meet specific criteria, such as autonomy
of subjects, paired measurements from the same individual, and adherence to a normal
distribution. These criteria are especially important for smaller sample sizes. Parametric
tests can only be used when the data fulfills these prerequisites.
For these previous reasons, two tests were conducted before analyzing the data to
compare the initial situation to the final situation. The first test was the Anderson-Darling
normality test, which determined whether the data was normally distributed. The second
test, Levene’s test, was used to determine if the data was homogenous.
NORMALITY TEST
Table 1 displays the Anderson-Darling normality test results, which aimed to determine if
the scores were normally distributed. All p-values (p > 0.05) were above the level of sig-
nificance (p = 0.05), indicating that the pretest and post-test scores are normally distrib-
uted. Therefore, it would be appropriate to perform any parametric test to determine if
there is a significant difference between the mean scores (see Table 1).
HOMOGENEITY TEST
In Levene’s test, the p-value (p > 0.05) is greater than the selected level of significance
(p = 0.05), as shown in Table 2. Thus, it demonstrates that the data variances are statis-
tically equal, and any parametric test can be performed (see Table 2).
7,06,56,05,55,04,54,03,5
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Mean 5,25
S.D 0,9246
N 32
PRE-TEST
Fr
eq
ue
nc
y
Normal
Distribution Plot "PRE-TEST"
Figure 1. Overall results of the pretest
Note. Mean, Standard Deviation, Minimum, and Maximum scores for the pretest.
William Chuquiguanga.
15REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
After knowing that the data is normally distributed and homogenous, the researcher ana-
lyzed the data by using parametric tests. Since a t-test determines whether or not the dif-
ference between the means of samples is significant (Creswell, 2013; Fernández & Baptista,
2013), one t-test for paired samples was performed. The t-test for paired samples was
conducted to determine how far each group performed from the pretest and post-test and
to state whether there was any significant difference between them.
PAIRED SAMPLE T-TEST
The effectiveness of the pq4r strategy in improving English reading comprehension among
efl learners was evaluated using a paired sample t-test. On the one hand, the pretest results
demonstrated that the group had a mean of 5.25 (out of 10) with a standard deviation of
98765
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Mean 7,25
S.D 1
N 32
POST-TEST
Fr
eq
ue
nc
y
Normal
Distribution Plot "POST-TEST"
Table 1. Normality test of Anderson-Darling
group variable n mean sd test statistic p-value
Tenth-grade
Pretest
32
5.25 0.92 0.51 0.186
Post-test 7.25 1.00 0.47 0.232
Note. All p-values (p > 0.05) demonstrate that the data were normally distributed.
Table 2. Levene test for equality
group variable n s.d. variance levene
statistic
df 1 df 2 p-value
Tenth-grade
Pretest
32
0.92 0.85
0.19 1 64 0.664
Posttest 1.00 1.0
Note. P-value (p > 0.05) demonstrated that the data are statistically equal.
Figure 2. Overall results of post-test
Note. Mean, Standard Deviation, Minimum, and Maximum scores for the pretest.
The Effect of the PQ4R Strategy on EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension at a Middle High School in Cuenca, Ecuador
16 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
0.92. On the other hand, the post-test results showed a mean of 7.25 (out of 10) with a
standard deviation of 1.00, as seen in Figure 3. The difference between the means of the
pretest and post-test was 2 points, which means that learners of this group had an im-
provement of 20% in their English reading comprehension (see Figure 3).
The data in Table 3 displays a noticeable difference in the mean scores between the
pretest and post-test. Specifically, the mean score of the post-test (7.25) is higher than the
mean score of the pretest (5.25). Additionally, the t-test value is -23.81, and the p-value
is 0.000, with a level of significance (α) of 0.05. These results indicate that the p-value
is smaller than the level of significance (α). These results indicate a noteworthy contrast
in the mean scores before and after the pq4r strategy was implemented by the researcher
(see Table 3).
COHEN’S D VALUE
The previous results provide evidence of an improvement in scores in all participants.
There was an increase of 2 points between the pretest and post-test scores. Therefore, to
determine the effect size of using the pq4r strategy on learners’ reading comprehension,
Cohen’s d was calculated. The effect size was calculated through the equations below.
m1 and m2 stand for the mean of groups 1 (pretest) and 2 (post-test). sd pooled stands
for pooled standard deviation. The sd pooled was calculated using the equation below.
n1 and n2 stand for the size of groups 1 (pretest) and 2 (post-test), while sd1 and sd2
stand for the standard deviation of groups 1 (pretest) and 2 (post-test), respectively. Fi-
nally, the criteria for interpreting Cohen’s «d» effect size was as follows: 0.20 is consid-
ered a small effect, 0.50 is a medium effect size, and 0.80 is considered a large effect size
(Creswell, 2013; Fernández & Baptista, 2013). Thus, the results revealed an effect size
of 2.08, interpreted as a considerable effect size of the pq4r strategy on learners’ reading
comprehension (see Table 4).
In addition, Figure 4 shows the strength of using the pq4r strategy on the total score
of the reading test, where the value of Cohen’s d was greater than 0.80, which means that
the use of the pq4r strategy in improving students’ reading comprehension has a consid-
erable effect size. It was responsible for 20% of the improvement of the learners’ reading
comprehension skills (see Figure 4).
DISCUSSION
The present study revealed positive outcomes regarding middle-high school students’ read-
ing comprehension skills. Implementing the pq4r strategy led to a noteworthy enhancement
in the English reading abilities of the efl students. This fact was evident from the variation
in the mean scores before and after the application of the strategy, which was statistically
significant at a 0.05 significance level. The results were analyzed and discussed in light of
William Chuquiguanga.
17REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Table 4. Cohen’s d value
vari-
able
value sd co-
hen’s d
interpre-
tation
N1 32
2.08 Large
effect
M1 5.25
SD1 0.92
N2 32
M2 7.25
SD2 1.0
9
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
6,0
7,0
6,3 8,4 0,6 2,7 4,8 6,
5,25 0,9246 32
7,25 1 32
Mean S.D N
D
ytisneD
ata
P
elbairaV
TSET-TSOP
TSET-ER
N
"tseT-tsoP dna tseT-erP" tolP noitubirtsiD
lamro
Figure 3. Difference between the means of the pretest and post-test
Figure 4. The effect size of the PQ4R strategy
Note. The difference between the means of the pretest and post-test was 2 points.
Note. Two points of difference between the mean scores indicate a large effect size of the PQ4R strategy
111098765432
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,0
X
D
en
si
ty
5,25 7,25
5,25 0,92
7,25 1
Media Desv.Est.
Distribution plot- Experimental group
Cohen's d: 2,08
Post-test
Pre-test
Difference: 2
The Effect of the PQ4R Strategy on EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension at a Middle High School in Cuenca, Ecuador
18 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
the main research question. The main research question aimed to determine whether the
pq4r strategy improves Ecuadorian middle-high school learners’ English reading compre-
hension skills in the academic year 2022/2023.
The results showed that students in the tenth grade who were taught using the pq4r
strategy enhanced their English reading comprehension abilities. After the pq4r strategy
was introduced as a teaching-learning strategy in reading classes, there was a significant
positive score difference between the pretest and post-test results. This finding is consistent
with the results of Rahmadia and Fatimah (2020), which showed that the pq4r learning
model had more influence on reading comprehension than the conventional learning
model (lecture method). Alike/Similarly, Khusniyah (2018) found that the pq4r strategy
significantly improved efl learners’ reading ability since this strategy fosters a range of
skills, including active participation, critical thinking, higher-order thinking, motivation,
reading comprehension, and vocabulary acquisition.
Using the pq4r strategy was beneficial for Ecuadorian efl students to improve their
reading comprehension. This teaching-learning strategy promoted higher-order thinking
skills and critical thinking abilities, encouraging students to reflect on the content they
read and express it in their own words. Additionally, the strategy prompted students to
actively participate in the reading process by previewing, questioning, and reflecting on
the text. Previewing the text allowed students to acquire new vocabulary before reading,
while the strategy’s structured approach helped students read and learn more effectively.
In addition, the present study showed that utilizing the pq4r technique led to positive
outcomes in English reading comprehension. In this regard, studies by Agustiani (2019)
and Amaya and Salinas (2021) demonstrated that learners can enhance their English
reading proficiency through the pq4r strategy. This enhancement is due to increased stu-
dent engagement and a better understanding of the material, resulting in improved scores.
Using the pq4r method as a teaching strategy, students’ English reading comprehension
and proficiency can be promoted. The present study’s findings indicate that introducing
the pq4r strategy in efl classes will benefit Ecuadorian middle-high school students by
improving their reading abilities.
CONCLUSIONS
The present study conducted during the academic year 2022/2023 sought to demonstrate
the effectiveness of implementing the pq4r strategy in improving the reading comprehen-
sion skills of middle-high school students. The descriptive results revealed a significant
improvement in the mean score of students, from 5.25 (out of 10) in the pretest to 7.25
(out of 10) in the post-test. These results signify the positive impact of the pq4r strategy
on middle-high school students’ reading ability.
Furthermore, the inferential results support the effectiveness of the pq4r strategy in
enhancing reading comprehension skills. Cohen’s d value of 2.08 indicated a large effect
size, and the paired sample t-test yielded a p-value of 0.00, which is less than the level of
significance of α = 0.05. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that teaching students
using the pq4r strategy successfully improves their English reading comprehension abilities.
The pq4r reading strategy is not commonly used in Ecuador, where recent studies
have shown that other metacognitive strategies such as sq3r, Question-Generation, Col-
laborative Strategic Reading (csr), Look, Think and Predict, Guided Retelling, Response
Journal, and Thinking Along with Strategy are effective in enhancing reading comprehen-
sion for efl learners at both high school and university levels. Thus, the findings in the
present research study demonstrated that by previewing, questioning, reading, reflecting,
William Chuquiguanga.
19REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
reciting, and reviewing texts, middle high school efl learners can also enhance their reading
comprehension abilities.
In summary, the findings in the present pre-experimental research study demonstrat-
ed that the pq4r strategy can enhance the reading comprehension skills of efl learners in
Ecuador. Teachers can provide a better learning experience to students by using the pq4r
strategy since it helps students improve their reading comprehension, vocabulary, critical
thinking skills, and ability to learn independently. Using this strategy, students can achieve
greater success in their personal and professional lives by better understanding, analyzing,
and engaging with English texts.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The pq4r reading strategy yielded positive outcomes, but it is important to consider cer-
tain recommendations to improve the technique’s effectiveness for future research studies.
One limitation of the study was the lack of a control group, as there was no other tenth-
grade classroom available for comparison during the morning session at the high school.
Therefore, it is highly recommended that future researchers include a control group with
similar characteristics to ensure the replication of the study and comparison of outcomes.
Additionally, it is recommended that researchers pilot their instruments, such as the reading
test, with participants before implementing them to improve the accuracy of future stud-
ies. Adapting and editing study material to fit the specific context of each study can also
lead to more reliable results. Lastly, due to dropouts and schedule changes, the study had
a smaller sample size than intended (32 instead of 40). Therefore, it is recommended that
future studies have a larger sample size to increase the accuracy and reliability of results.
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kronos.idiomas@uce.edu.ec
REVISTA KRONOS
INSTITUTO ACADÉMICO DE IDIOMAS REVISTA KRONOS
UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024, pp. 21-34
DOI: https://doi.org/10.29166/kronos.v4i1.4237
CC BY-NC 4.0 —Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional
© 2023 Universidad Central del Ecuador
Alisson Cruz Murillo | Universidad Técnica de Manabí (Ecuador)
Mónica Vaca-Cárdenas | Universidad Técnica de Manabí (Ecuador)
abstract Role-play has emerged as a valuable didactic strategy for enhancing the speaking skill in students,
as it immerses them in language-rich contexts, prompting active communication. Therefore, in this study
aims to analyze role-play as a didactic strategy for enhancing the speaking skills of EFL high school students
of Bahía de Caráquez city. A qualitative research design was employed drawing upon the insights of three
expert English teachers in first year of high school, from three public schools in Bahía de Caráquez city. 40
relevant scientific articles were also reviewed, sourced from reputable databases, including Google Schol-
ar, Redalyc, and Scielo. The main results showed that role-plays allow students to explore authentic situa-
tions, focus on communication rather than grammar, and reduce stress and anxiety. Teachers can create a
supportive and safe environment for students to practice speaking, assess and evaluate their speaking skills,
incorporate technology, and promote language diversity and cultural sensitivity. It is concluded that pub-
lic English teachers in Bahía de Caráquez city use role-play as a didactic strategy for enhancing the speak-
ing skills of EFL high school students.
key words Role-play, didactic strategy, speaking skill, English as a Foreign Language, teaching and learning.
fecha de recepción 22/07/2023 fecha de aprobación 27/08/2023
El juego de roles como estrategia didáctica que mejora las habilidades orales
en las estudiantes de secundarias
resumen El juego de roles ha surgido como una valiosa estrategia didáctica para mejorar la habilidad de hablar en los
estudiantes, ya que los sumerge en contextos ricos en el lenguaje, lo que fomenta la comunicación activa. Por lo tan-
to, en este estudio se pretende analizar el juego de roles como estrategia didáctica para mejorar las habilidades orales
de estudiantes de inglés como lengua extranjera de nivel secundario de la ciudad de Bahía de Caráquez. Se empleó un
diseño de investigación cualitativo basándose en los conocimientos de tres profesores expertos de inglés de primer año
de secundaria, de tres escuelas públicas de la ciudad de Bahía de Caráquez. También se revisaron 40 artículos científ-
icos relevantes, provenientes de bases de datos acreditadas, incluidas Google Scholar, Redalyc y Scielo. Los principales
resultados mostraron que los juegos de roles permiten a los estudiantes explorar situaciones auténticas, centrarse en la
comunicación en lugar de la gramática y reducir el estrés y la ansiedad. Los maestros pueden crear un entorno seguro y
de apoyo para que los estudiantes practiquen el habla, evalúen sus habilidades orales, incorporen tecnología y promue-
van la diversidad lingüística y la sensibilidad cultural. Se concluye que los profesores públicos de inglés de la ciudad de
Bahía de Caráquez utilizan el juego de roles como estrategia didáctica para mejorar las habilidades orales de los estudi-
antes de inglés como lengua extranjera de secundaria.
palabras clave Juego de roles, estrategia didáctica, habilidad para hablar, inglés como lengua extranjera, enseñanza y aprendizaje..
Role-play as a didactic strategy enhancing
the speaking skills in High-School students
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Role-play as a didactic strategy enhancing the speaking skills in High-School students
INTRODUCTION
The mastery of the English language enables individuals to effectively communicate with
people from diverse linguistic backgrounds and opens up new opportunities for person-
al and professional growth (Susanti et al., 2022). The whole world has become a global
village and people communicate with each other in a common language, i.e., English. The
English language is spoken all over the world and it has attained the status of the global
language (Umar et al., 2020). It is the language widely used in the field of scientific re-
search, education, business, the internet, travel and tourism, media and newspapers, soft-
ware, medicine, engineering, information and technology, entertainment, banking, and so
on (Wicaksana et al., 2019).
The modern media world demands a good command of spoken English. Effective
communication in the English language enables individuals to participate in international
business, engage in cultural exchange, and access information from a wider range of sourc-
es (Rankin et al., 2006). Consequently, English language teaching has been recognized
as a crucial aspect of modern educational systems. In this context, teachers play a critical
role in promoting oral competence and ensuring that students develop the necessary skills
to effectively communicate in the language (Susanti et al., 2022). In Ecuador, English is
taught as a mandatory subject in schools, starting from primary education (Ministerio de
Educación, 2015).
Despite its importance, developing oral competence in English can be challenging,
particularly for students who are learning the language as a second or foreign language
(Yuliana et al., 2014). Effective speaking skills are essential for success in education and
life; unfortunately, many students struggle with speaking, particularly in large classroom
settings. Speaking is considered one of the most difficult aspects of language learning.
Many language learners have difficulty expressing themselves orally and they often have
difficulty using a foreign language to express their thoughts effectively (Mandasari, 2017;
Mulyana & Anugrahgusti, 2020). Additionally, students stop speaking because they en-
counter psychological obstacles or because they cannot find the right words and expres-
sions (Ampatuan et al., 2016).
As a result, educators are constantly seeking new and effective strategies to help stu-
dents develop their speaking abilities (Thi et al., 2017). One strategy that has received
increasing attention in recent years is role-play. Role-play is a technique in which students
take on the roles of characters and engage in simulated scenarios, such as debates, nego-
tiations, or conversations (Russell & Shepherd, 2010).
Role-play is a valuable didactic strategy for improving speaking skills worldwide, since
it helps students develop their language skills through immersion in a situation similar
to real life (Vaca-Cárdenas et al., 2017). It provides an engaging and dynamic learning
experience that fosters language development, communication skills, and interpersonal
abilities (Umar et al., 2020). Nevertheless, the efficacy of role-playing in improving the
speaking abilities of high school students of English as a foreign language has not been
extensively examined (Jakob, 2018). Therefore, this study aims to analyze role-play as a
didactic strategy for enhancing the speaking skills of efl high school students in Bahía de
Caráquez city.
LITERATURE REVIEW
SPEAKING SKILL
The complexity of the speaking process can vary greatly depending on various factors
such as the speaker’s language proficiency, the topic being discussed, the audience, and the
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purpose of the communication (Thanyalak, 2012). However, some common components
of the speaking process include: planning and organizing the content, selecting words and
constructing sentences, pronunciation, articulation, and prosody (the rhythm, stress, and
intonation of speech) (Anandan, 2011). These components interact and influence each
other, making the speaking process complex (Rajah Kumaran, 2017).
A SUCCESSFUL SPEAKING LESSON
A successful speaking lesson in teaching English can be a memorable and impactful expe-
rience for both the teacher and students (Kürüm, 2016). To create such a lesson, a few
key components must be present. First and foremost, the lesson should have clear and
achievable objectives. This could include improving pronunciation, increasing vocabulary,
or encouraging students to speak in complete sentences (Gusmuliana et al., 2021). Having
specific goals in mind will help guide the teacher’s lesson plan and give students a sense
of direction (Thi et al., 2017).
Secondly, the lesson should be engaging and interactive. Speaking activities, such as
role-plays, debates, and group discussions, allow students to practice their speaking skills
naturally and authentically. Using games and other fun activities can also help keep stu-
dents motivated and interested (Yusuf et al., 2020).
Thirdly, the teacher should provide positive and constructive feedback to students.
Encouragement and praise can help build students’ confidence and self-esteem, while
constructive criticism can help them identify areas for improvement (Bhatti, 2021). The
teacher should also create a supportive and non-judgmental classroom environment where
students feel comfortable taking risks and making mistakes (Dinapoli, 2009).
Fourthly, the teacher should incorporate a variety of teaching methods and materials
to cater to different learning styles (Gusmuliana et al., 2021). For example, visual aids
such as pictures and videos can help students understand new vocabulary, while audio
recordings can help them improve their pronunciation (Susanti et al., 2022). The teacher
should also encourage students to use English as much as possible during the lesson and
provide opportunities for individual and group speaking activities (Kürüm, 2016).
Finally, the teacher should regularly assess students’ progress and provide opportuni-
ties for them to reflect on their speaking abilities. This can be done through self-reflection
exercises, oral presentations, or written evaluations (Wicaksana et al., 2019).
DIDACTIC STRATEGY
A didactic strategy is a plan or approach that is used to teach or instruct a particular subject
or skill (D. Lestari, 2015). It involves the selection and organization of teaching methods,
materials, and activities that support learning and achievement of the desired learning out-
comes (D. Lestari, 2015). The goal of a didactic strategy is to effectively transfer knowl-
edge and skills to the learners in a way that is engaging, meaningful, and relevant to their
needs (F. Lestari & Andini, 2020).
Didactic strategies can vary widely depending on the subject matter, the age and abil-
ity level of the learners, and the teacher’s teaching style (Dinapoli, 2009). Some common
didactic strategies include lecture-style instruction, hands-on activities, discussion-based
learning, problem-based learning, and project-based learning (Duong, 2014). The choice
of didactic strategy should be based on the specific learning objectives and the needs of
the learners (Rahimy & Safarpour, 2012).
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Role-play as a didactic strategy enhancing the speaking skills in High-School students
ROLE-PLAY AS A DIDACTIC STRATEGY
Role-play is a widely recognized didactic strategy that provides learners with opportunities
to practice language skills in a communicative and interactive context (Thanyalak, (2012).
Role-plays help to improve speaking skills, as well as listening, communication skill, and
creativity (Rajah Kumaran, 2017). Role-playing involves participating in simulated social
situations that are intended to illustrate real-life roles and contexts (Platt, 2001). Role-
play is a method of facilitating learning that is effective in achieving learning outcomes in
three main areas: affective, cognitive, and behavioral, which is why it is seen as a teaching
strategy to help develop speech in first-year high school students (Stokoe, 2014).
On the other hand, Stokoe (2014) states that Role-playing is a form of experiential
learning so that they can make mistakes and learn from them. Therefore, students adopt
different characters and work together in a given scenario interacting in the roles they have
assumed and work together in a given scenario interacting in the roles they have assumed
(Burns, 1998). Role-playing is effective for learning about complex social and human
systems (Ajleaa binti Abdul Rahman et al., 2018). As mentioned above, role-play is an
activity exploited by different approaches to language teaching (Kreuter & Valliant, 2007).
It is a useful tool because through this activity, says more cognitive demands are placed
on the comprehension system and learners’ ability to instantly incorporate pragmatics and
sociopragmatics and pragmalinguistics into the interaction. This technique is practically
one of how we can allow our learners to practice in the classroom and also give them the
confidence to express themselves and develop their skills (Maher & al Nakhalah, 2016a).
It is a teaching technique in which students act out a scenario or simulation, usually
in small groups or pairs, to practice using the language in a realistic context (Hardan,
2013). In the context of English language teaching, role-play can be used to promote the
development of speaking skills by providing students with opportunities to practice us-
ing the language in a variety of real-life scenarios, such as ordering food in a restaurant,
making a complaint, or asking for directions (Soraya et al., 2018). This type of immersive
learning experience can help students to build their confidence in using the language and
to develop their ability to think on their feet, as they must respond to the language needs
of the scenario in real-time (Castro & Villafuerte, 2019).
TYPES OF ROLE-PLAYS
According to Thanyalak, (2012), there are different types of role-play activities that teach-
ers can use to teach English, such as:
a) Situational Role-Play: This type of role-play involves creating scenarios that reflect re-
al-life situations where learners can practice language skills relevant to the situation.
For example, a hotel check-in, ordering food at a restaurant, or a job interview. 4
b) Interactive Role-Play: Interactive role-play involves learners in a more dynamic and
spontaneous conversation, where they must use a wide range of communicative skills.
This type of role-play encourages learners to ask questions, give opinions, negotiate,
and respond appropriately to a variety of social situations.
c) Problem-Solving Role-Play: Problem-solving role-play involves learners working in
groups to solve a problem or complete a task using English (Stokoe, 2014). This
type of role-play enhances collaborative learning and promotes the use of language
in a purposeful context.
d) Simulation Role-Play: This type of role-play creates a simulated environment where
learners can practice specific language skills in a realistic context. For example, a simu-
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Cruz A., Vaca M.
lated courtroom trial, a press conference, or a police interrogation (Jackson & Back,
2011). In addition, using different types of role-play activities as a didactic strategy
in teaching English provides learners with a communicative and interactive context to
practice language skills. These role-play activities can be adapted to the learners’ level
of language proficiency and promote language acquisition, as well as critical thinking,
problem-solving, and collaborative skills (Castro & Villafuerte, 2019).
BENEFITS OF ROLE-PLAY TO IMPROVE SPEAKING SKILL
By assuming different roles and engaging in simulated conversations, learners can practice
and develop their speaking abilities dynamically and interactively (Maher & Al Nakhalah,
2016a). The use of role-play as a didactic strategy has a range of benefits for students’
speaking skills (Ureta Santos, 2022).
Role play should be used as a didactic strategy to improve speaking skills in students
for several reasons:
Confidence and fluency: first and foremost, it provides students with opportunities to practi-
ce speaking in real-life contexts, which can help to build their confidence and fluency
in using the language (Pulido et al., 2022).
Authentic practice: Role-play provides students with an authentic language-learning expe-
rience that simulates real-life situations. This helps students become more confident
and comfortable using the language in real-life settings (Jackson & Back, 2011).
Active engagement: Role-play requires students to be actively engaged in the language-lear-
ning process, which can increase their motivation and interest in learning.
Development of communicative competence: Role-play helps students develop their communi-
cative competence, which includes not only their language proficiency, but also their
ability to understand cultural norms, use appropriate nonverbal cues, and adjust their
language use to different social situations (Aliakbari & Jamalvandi, 2010).
Encourages collaboration and teamwork: Role-play often involves working in groups, which
helps students develop teamwork and collaboration skills and encourages them to
support each other in their language learning (Gilakjani, 2011).
Improves interpersonal skills: Role-play can also help students improve their interpersonal
skills, such as active speaking, effective communication, and empathy (Anandan, 2011).
Development of interpersonal skills: Additionally, role-play can also promote the development
of interpersonal skills, as students must interact with their classmates and engage in
negotiations and problem-solving activities (Kuśnierek, 2015).
Improvement of pronunciation and intonation: Moreover, role-play can also help students to
develop their pronunciation and intonation, as they must imitate the speech patterns
of native speakers to be understood (Mei & Masoumeh, 2017).
CHALLENGES OF ROLE-PLAY
Despite its benefits, the use of role-play as a didactic strategy also presents several challeng-
es (Mei & Masoumeh, 2017). For example, students may be intimidated by the prospect
of speaking in front of their classmates or may struggle to understand the instructions and
expectations of the role-play scenario (Rao, 2019). To overcome these challenges, teach-
ers need to provide clear instructions and guidance and create a supportive and inclusive
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Role-play as a didactic strategy enhancing the speaking skills in High-School students
learning environment (Jackson & Back, 2011). Additionally, teachers may also need to
provide additional support for students who are less confident in their speaking skills,
such as through individualized feedback or one-on-one coaching (Jackson & Back, 2011).
METHODOLOGY
This research had a qualitative approach because it uses qualitative data collection tech-
niques to explore teachers’ opinions. A qualitative approach in research explores phenom-
ena through subjective understandings, focusing on rich, non-numerical data, for getting
a deep understanding of participants’ experiences (Vaca-Cárdenas et al., 2017). It empha-
sizes context, social interactions, and individual perspectives to understand complexities,
offering valuable insights into the researched subject (Hernández-Sampieri, Fernández, &
Baptista, 1997).
PARTICIPANTS
The research was conducted in public schools of the Bahía de Caráquez city, located in
Sucre canton, Manabí province. Three English Teachers of first year of high school from
the three public schools of the city were chosen to participate in this study. The criteria
for participation were:
1. To be an English teacher
2. The wish to participate voluntarily in the study.
3. To belong to one of the 3 public schools of Bahía de Caráquez.
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
This section describes the data collection procedures used in a qualitative study that aimed
to explore the opinions of three English teachers in Bahia de Caráquez city about the use
of role-play in the classroom. The technique used in this research was an interview and
the instrument was a semi-structured questionnaire, which was audio recorded and tran-
scribed verbatim. The interview questions focused on the effectiveness, benefits, and chal-
lenges of using role-play in English language teaching.
DATA ANALYSIS
Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. The data collection procedure allowed for
a rich and nuanced exploration of the teachers’ opinions and experiences with role-play
in the classroom.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
DEFINITION OF ROLE-PLAY BY THE PARTICIPANTS
The interviewed teachers define role-play as an interactive activity involving acting out
scenarios. It can be used in an educational context to provide students with opportunities
for practice, skill development, and a deeper understanding of real-life situations.
According to the interviewees, a role-play is an engaging activity where students act
out scenarios to practice skills, develop abilities, and understand real-life situations in an
educational setting. Burns (1998) agrees that role-plays engage students, helping them
practice skills and understand real-life situations.
PARTICIPANTS USE ROLE-PLAYS IN THE ENGLISH CLASS TO HELP STUDENTS IMPROVE
THEIR SPEAKING SKILLS
The three teachers use role-plays in the English class to assist students in improving their
speaking skills. Role-plays provide a context for students to employ English in a more
natural and interactive manner, aiding in the development of their confidence and ability
to communicate in real-life situations. These role-plays are effective in practicing various
language functions, including giving and receiving directions, making requests, negotiat-
ing, and expressing opinions. Furthermore, they can be adapted to suit different levels of
language proficiency, making them a versatile tool for language teachers
Role-plays in English classes enhance speaking abilities by providing a realistic and
interactive setting, allowing the practice of language functions. Their adaptability makes
them invaluable. Role-plays help to improve communication skills, and creativity (Rajah
Kumaran, 2017). They involve participating in simulated social situations that are intended
to illustrate real-life contexts (Platt, 2001).
HOW ROLE-PLAYS HELP STUDENTS IMPROVE THEIR SPEAKING SKILLS
Role-plays can help students improve their speaking skills in several ways: By providing
a realistic context, encouraging interaction, Practicing specific language functions, Feed-
back, and reflection. Overall, role-plays can be a fun and effective way for students to
practice and improve their speaking skills in English. On the other hand, Role-plays use
real-life situations and gives a chance to practice pronunciation, oral expression, gram-
mar, and vocabulary.
Using role-plays alleviates stress and enhances communication skills, providing a
more natural and interactive language engagement. Similarly, Jackson (2011) states that
utilizing role-plays creates a supportive and natural language engagement, alleviating stress
and enhancing communication skills.
HOW PARTICIPANTS USE ROLE-PLAYS IN ENGLISH CLASSES
They use role-plays to focus on the target topic in situations like job interviews and order-
ing food in a restaurant. They also use role-play based on a scenario, dialogue-based role-
play, and problem-solving role-play, among others. However, depending on what they are
learning they have telephone conversations, order things in a restaurant, meet people, or
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Role-play as a didactic strategy enhancing the speaking skills in High-School students
do other everyday activities. Furthermore, the specific type of role-play used will depend
on the learning objectives and needs of the students.
Similarly, Ureta Santos (2022) states that role-play activities centered on real-life
situations, such as job interviews and restaurant scenarios, cater to specific learning objec-
tives, focusing on real-life situations and scenarios.
HOW IMPORTANT PARTICIPANTS CONSIDER USING ROLE-PLAYS IN ENGLISH CLASS TO
HELP STUDENTS IMPROVE THEIR SPEAKING SKILLS
When teachers speak, students are stressed thinking about grammar structure.
Role-plays:
- Avoid students getting worried about mistakes and ensure they feel confidente when
using role-plays.
- Encourage active learning,
- Provide a safe environment for practice.
- Develop communication skills.
- Provide students with the confidence to communicate with others and develop their
other language skills.
- Overall, using role-plays in the English class can be an effective way to help students
improve their speaking skills, develop confidence, and engage with the language in a
more natural and interactive way.
DETERMINING WHICH ROLE-PLAY ACTIVITIES ARE APPROPRIATE FOR SPECIFIC STU-
DENTS AND THEIR LANGUAGE ABILITIES
It depends on students’ ages, English levels, and preferences. It is possible to determine
which role-play activities are appropriate for specific students and their language abilities
in several ways: assessing students’ language proficiency, considering students’ interests
and needs, adapting activities to meet students’ abilities, and providing feedback and guid-
ance. By considering these factors, appropriateness in role-plays is determined by factors
such as age, proficiency, and preferences, enabling a focused approach (Anandan, 2011).
CREATING A SUPPORTIVE AND SAFE ENVIRONMENT FOR STUDENTS TO PRACTICE THE
SPEAKING SKILLS THROUGH ROLE-PLAY ACTIVITIES
Creating a supportive and safe environment is essential for students to feel comfortable
practicing their speaking skills through role-play activities. Here are some strategies that
teachers can use to create such an environment: Build a positive classroom culture, estab-
lish clear guidelines, encourage risk-taking, provide feedback and support, respect cultur-
al differences, and create a supportive and safe environment that encourages students to
practice their speaking skills through role-play activities, leading to greater confidence and
fluency in the English language.
As the interviewers indicated, a supportive and safe environment is vital, achieved
through strategies such as clear guidelines and feedback. According to Duong (2014), a
vital and supportive environment for role-plays is achieved through strategies like clear
guidelines and feedback. Similarly, Hardan (2013) argues that implementing successful
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role-play activities, such as simulating a doctor’s office visit, fosters confidence in English
communication.
ASSESSING AND EVALUATING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING SKILLS DURING ROLE-PLAY ACTIVI-
TIES
It is important to provide constructive feedback to students and encourage them to con-
tinue practicing and improving their speaking skills. Teachers can create a rubric that out-
lines the different aspects of speaking skills that they want to assess, such as pronunciation,
fluency, vocabulary, and grammar. Teachers can use this rubric to grade students’ perfor-
mance during the role-play activity.
As reported by the interviewers, Constructive feedback, rubrics, and assessments
improve speaking skills during role-play activities. Along the same lines, Maxwell (1997)
Constructive feedback, rubrics, and assessments play a crucial role in improving speaking
skills during role-play activities.
INCORPORATING THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY, SUCH AS AUDIO AND VIDEO RECORDING,
IN YOUR ROLE-PLAY ACTIVITIES TO ENHANCE STUDENTS’ SPEAKING SKILLS
Before students produce the language, they need to receive lots of input (Listening and
Reading) in order to get experience. By asking students to record their role-play perfor-
mances using their smartphones or a recording device. This allows them to listen to their
performance and identify areas where they can improve their pronunciation, intonation,
and fluency. Additionally, using online platforms such as Zoom or Teams to conduct role-
play activities and record students’ performances.
Rao (2019) claims that role-play activities can be enhanced by incorporating tech-
nology, recording performances, and utilizing online platforms.
PERSONAL EXPERIENCES USING ROLE-PLAY AS A TEACHING STRATEGY TO IMPROVE
STUDENTS’ SPEAKING SKILLS
The participants’ opinion is that role-play is a good technique for students to speak with-
out hesitation. In most cases, it is a good way to have students obtain practice. Students
like to do role-plays and have fun doing them. One of the most important benefits of us-
ing role-play is that it encourages collaboration and teamwork among students. When stu-
dents work together to create and perform role-plays, they can learn from each other and
provide constructive feedback. This can help to create a positive learning environment and
improve students’ interpersonal skills.
Ampatuan et al. (2016) state that role-plays are effective in improving speaking skills,
promoting fluent expression, enjoyment, and collaboration.
PROVIDING INDIVIDUAL SUPPORT AND FEEDBACK TO STUDENTS TO HELP THEM IM-
PROVE THEIR SPEAKING SKILLS THROUGH ROLE-PLAY ACTIVITIES
Students role-play according to what is being taught. No matter the size of the group, feed-
back should be done immediately, by using peers (a student evaluates their activities with
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Role-play as a didactic strategy enhancing the speaking skills in High-School students
a rubric) or self-assessment (They monitor their own knowledge using a Likert scale). In
addition, by identifying their strengths and weaknesses and setting goals.
According to Dinapoli (2009), individual support, feedback, and goal setting contrib-
ute to enhancing speaking abilities during role-plays.
INCORPORATING LANGUAGE DIVERSITY AND CULTURAL SENSITIVITY IN YOUR ROLE-
PLAY ACTIVITIES TO SUPPORT ALL STUDENTS’ SPEAKING SKILLS AND BACKGROUNDS
Incorporating language diversity and cultural sensitivity in role-play activities is essential
to support all students’ speaking skills and backgrounds. Here are some ways to do this:
- By incorporating different accents and dialects.
- By using inclusive language.
- By encouraging cultural sharing.
- By fostering a safe and inclusive learning environment.
- By providing materials in different languages, and encouraging cultural sharing, students
can feel more engaged and motivated to participate in role-play activities, leading to
improved speaking skills and cultural understanding.
Kreuter (2007) claims that cultural sensitivity and language diversity are crucial consid-
erations in role-play activities.
THE BENEFITS OF USING ROLE-PLAYS IN THE ENGLISH CLASS
Students get motivated and get an effective filter down from each student. Role-plays help
students practice their different skills and abilities making it less difficult for them to use
the language in a real-life situation.
Additionally, role-plays:
- Provides real-life practice.
- Develops fluency.
- Builds vocabulary.
- Improves pronunciation.
- Encourages collaboration.
- Enhances cultural understanding.
- Makes learning fun and engaging.
As stated by Lestari (2020) Role-plays offer numerous benefits, including motivation, skill
practice, fluency development, and cultural understanding.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF USING ROLE-PLAYS IN ENGLISH CLASS
Role-plays serve as a valuable pedagogical tool for English language learners, facilitating
language acquisition and communicative competence. However, their implementation in
the classroom presents certain drawbacks, including:
- the potential for being time-consuming,
- eliciting shyness and anxiety among learners,
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- instigating discomfort and self-consciousness,
- limiting language use,
- lacking authenticity in communication scenarios, and
- posing challenges in terms of teacher supervision during interactions.
Educators need to be mindful of these limitations while effectively using role-plays to op-
timize language-learning outcomes.
Furthermore, Jakob (2018) states that despite advantages, role-plays may have dis-
advantages, such as time consumption and limited supervision.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE SUCCESS OF USING ROLE-PLAYS
TO DEVELOP SPEAKING SKILLS
The successful utilization of role-play for enhancing speaking skills in the English class-
room is contingent upon several key factors. These factors encompass the establishment
of clear learning objectives, the creation of relevant and engaging scenarios, the provision
of adequate preparation and support, the integration of authenticity in role-play activities,
the cultivation of a positive and inclusive classroom environment, and the incorporation
of variety and flexibility to cater to diverse learner needs. By judiciously considering and
implementing these factors, educators can effectively harness the potential of role-play as
a powerful instructional strategy in fostering communicative competence among English
language learners.
Moreover, Lestari (2015), success factors for role-plays include clear objectives, en-
gaging scenarios, preparation, authenticity, a positive environment, and flexibility.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE FAILURE OF USING
ROLE-PLAY TO DEVELOP SPEAKING SKILLS
Role-play, as a pedagogical approach for enhancing speaking skills, holds potential. How-
ever, its effectiveness can be hindered by various factors contributing to its shortcomings.
Among these factors are the absence of well-defined learning objectives, usage of inap-
propriate or unengaging scenarios, inadequate preparation and support for learners, lack
of authenticity in scenarios presented, the establishment of a negative classroom environ-
ment, limited variation and flexibility in role-play exercises, and insufficient feedback and
assessment mechanisms. Addressing these limitations is crucial for optimizing the bene-
fits of role-play and promoting successful language acquisition and communication in the
academic setting.
Reiners (2016) says that certain factors can hinder role-plays, such as unclear objec-
tives, unengaging scenarios, and lack of feedback.
CONCLUSION
It is concluded that integrating role-plays into the English class is a highly effective and
engaging method to enhance language learning. It not only provides valuable practice in
communication but also helps students develop essential social skills and boosts their over-
all motivation and enjoyment in the learning process. Through role-plays, students can
32 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Role-play as a didactic strategy enhancing the speaking skills in High-School students
experience language in meaningful contexts, making their language skills more practical
and applicable to real-life situations.
However, while role-plays offer advantages, they also come with drawbacks, so teach-
ers need to take then into consideration for balancing the teaching strategies. However,
the teachers underscored that with diligent planning and preparation, the advantages of
role-play surpassed the encountered challenges, emphasizing its significance as an enriching
pedagogical approach for language learning.
The use of role-plays brings benefits such as fostering a real-life context for language
practicing, improving language functions, and promoting cultural awareness. Moreover,
the text underscores the significance of creating a supportive classroom environment, in-
tegrating technology, offering personalized support and feedback, and taking into account
language diversity and cultural sensitivity.
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DOI:
CC BY-NC 4.0 —Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional
© 2023 Universidad Central del Ecuador
pISSN 12631-2840
eISSN 2631-2859
kronos.idiomas@uce.edu.ec
REVISTA KRONOS
INSITUTO ACADÉMICO DE IDIOMAS REVISTA KRONOS
UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024, pp. 35-46
Erika Tenezaca Yadaicela | UEP Geovanny Batista Montini Paulo VI
Paula Cisneros Rosero | UEP Cardenal Spellman (Ecuador)
Mateo Solórzano Hernández | UEP Cardenal Spellman (Ecuador)
Gabriela Escobar Trujillo | UEP Cardenal Spellman (Ecuador)
Nicolás Barriga Porras | UEP Cardenal Spellman (Ecuador)
abstract El coronavirus ha producido cambios en los estilos de vida y el virus se ha convertido en una parte integral
de nuestra vida cotidiana, especialmente para los estudiantes. Con las nuevas prácticas de enseñanza emprendidas, se
están haciendo nuevas reformas en los estudiantes de las escuelas secundarias. Este artículo presenta información so-
bre los cambios en los hábitos de aprendizaje de los estudiantes ecuatorianos. Estudios recientes han argumentado que
el uso de tiras cómicas en la enseñanza de idiomas son herramientas útiles en la adquisición de un idioma durante la
situación pospandemia. El presente estudio profundizará en el uso de las tiras cómicas como medio de aprendizaje, sus
beneficios y los desafíos en su implementación. La investigación se llevó a cabo en una escuela privada de una de las ci-
udades más grandes de Ecuador con 50 participantes. Los hallazgos se basan en los resultados de encuestas y artículos
relacionados con la implementación de tiras cómicas para la enseñanza de idiomas después del período pandémico. Los
resultados mostraron que el uso de los comics es efectivo para la enseñanza de vocabulario y gramática, así también, los
comics son usados para introducir conceptos como modales y pronombres y también para demostrar la transformación
de voz directa en voz indirecta dentro de los globos de diálogo.
key words Comic strips, acquisition of a language, benefits, challenges.
fecha de recepción 01/06/2023 fecha de aprobación 27/09/2023
La influencia de los comics en el aprendizaje del idioma inglés
durante el periodo de pospandemia
resumen El coronavirus ha producido cambios en los estilos de vida y el virus se ha convertido en una parte integral
de nuestra vida cotidiana, especialmente para los estudiantes. Con las nuevas prácticas de enseñanza emprendidas, se
están haciendo nuevas reformas en los estudiantes de las escuelas secundarias. Este artículo presenta información so-
bre los cambios en los hábitos de aprendizaje de los estudiantes ecuatorianos. Estudios recientes han argumentado que
el uso de tiras cómicas en la enseñanza de idiomas son herramientas útiles en la adquisición de un idioma durante la
situación pospandemia. El presente estudio profundizará en el uso de las tiras cómicas como medio de aprendizaje, sus
beneficios y los desafíos en su implementación. La investigación se llevó a cabo en una escuela privada de una de las ci-
udades más grandes de Ecuador con 50 participantes. Los hallazgos se basan en los resultados de encuestas y artículos
relacionados con la implementación de tiras cómicas para la enseñanza de idiomas después del período pandémico. Los
resultados mostraron que el uso de los comics es efectivo para la enseñanza de vocabulario y gramática, así también, los
comics son usados para introducir conceptos como modales y pronombres y también para demostrar la transformación
de voz directa en voz indirecta dentro de los globos de diálogo.
palabras clave Tiras cómicas, adquisición de un idioma, beneficios, desafíos.
The influence of Comics in learning English
language during post pandemic period
36 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
The influence of Comics in learning English language during post pandemic period
INTRODUCTION
Covid-19 became the great 2020 pandemic by March 2020. As a response, adjustments
are being made to language classrooms, including training initiatives aimed at empowering
teachers to effectively resume their tasks. In her study titled «Teaching with Technology:
What is at Stake?», Furstenberg highlights the role of technology in granting learners the
ability to make choices, thus fostering autonomy, empowerment, and active engagement in
language learning (Furstenberg, 1997). It is important to point out that Furstenberg un-
derscores technology’s value not as a definitive solution for language teaching and learning,
but as a tool that can facilitate the evolution of novel pedagogical approaches. Moreover,
the author suggests that comic strips have the capacity to stimulate students’ creativity.
English could be boring for teenagers in the post-pandemic situation because elec-
tronic devices present information in a short time and it is more attractive than genially
presentation. Additionally, during this period, most of the learners studied in isolation
at home and in an inappropriate learning environment and lack of self-discipline (Bao,
2020). However, schools and teachers should create opportunities to build students’ inter-
est in learning a target language. For this reason, the teacher becomes the main key in the
classrooms in the post-pandemic situation because teachers must deliver materials, tasks,
and lessons which facilitate that learners improve their minds, social factors, motivation,
and creativity.
Consequently, comics are an interesting task because comics engage teenagers to con-
tinue studying a new language. Students need to comprehend the materials and the teach-
ers share them using appropriate media which aims to make the students feel comfortable
and easy to understand the materials. People use sophisticated media to do everything,
including teaching and learning a second language through comics.
Finally, the present study was undertaken to elucidate the impact of comic strips on
the learning of the English Language in the aftermath of the pandemic. Furthermore, the
research aimed to address key research inquiries, including: What do learners and teachers
know about the definition and elements of comic strips? What are the pros and cons of
using comics in learning English language during post-pandemic situations? Should com-
ics be recommended for teaching a second language in an asynchronous environment? Is
there an appropriate procedure for using comic strips in the classrooms? Consequently, the
present study could find a solution to improve the learning of a foreign language through
comic strips in foreign language classrooms after the pandemic period. Furthermore, the
outcomes of this study hold the potential to serve as a source of inspiration for educators,
students, curriculum planners, content creators, researchers, and various stakeholders.
These findings may encourage them to embrace the integration of comics as a fundamental
element in their educational endeavors.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The covid-19 pandemic has impacted various aspects of society, with education experi-
encing notable transformations (Flores & Gago, 2020). According to Rahiem (2021),
the shift towards remote work and learning accured swiftly, leading to a significant digital
revolution in the field of education. This revolution encompassed online lectures, work-
shops, teleconferencing, digital open resources, online examinations, and engagement with-
in virtual environments (Strielkowski, 2020, cited in Kapasia et al., 2020). However, the
post-pandemic period has brought different challenges which produce stress, depression,
anxiety, and an unfavorable study environment. Learning at school can be made difficult
by students and teachers.
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Tenezaca et al.
On the other hand, the studying habits created during the pandemic period will never
go away completely. The teachers have to understand and handle significant issues in the
classrooms during face-to-face period after the pandemic era. Loveless (2021) said that
after the outbreak, learners show minimal effort to attend classes, do homework and mis-
understand topics that they reviewed in the previous level and this situation generates in
students’ and teachers’ stress. It happens because learners attended a short period of class-
es, when they come back to face-to-face classes, they need to accomplish a schedule. This
approach leads to condensing all study time into lengthy days, which is not always effec-
tive and often induces stress.
Consequently, utilizing comics as a tool for teaching a second language proves ben-
eficial in enhancing language skills. This approach prevents students’ disinterest, as the
materials captivate their attention and provide an enjoyable learning experience. Previous
research supports this notion, demonstrating that incorporating comics can heighten stu-
dents’ motivation to learn English (Hasanah, 2021).
According to Rokhayani and Utari (2014), printed materials remain a viable medium
when an electrical connection is unavailable, offering the advantage of accessibility in any
location or at any time. The inclusion of visual aids, such as images and text, aids in the dis-
semination of educational content from teachers to students. The success of education can
be evaluated by assessing the outcomes of the teaching and learning processes themselves.
Therefore, comic strips hold readers’ interest due to their sequential and humorous
storytelling, combining professionally crafted visual with text. With this background in
mind, the objective of this article is to introduce comic strips as an alternative method for
instructing English to baccalaureate students, addressing their vocabulary limitations and
English proficiency.
DEFINITION AND ELEMENTS OF COMIC STRIPS
Comics are well-known as comic books or comic strips. They are a popular form of se-
quential art that uses a combination of text and drawings to tell funny and interesting sto-
ries entertainingly and visually. The author and cartoonist Scott McCloud defines comics
as «juxtaposed images and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey infor-
mation and produce an aesthetic response in the viewer» (1995, p. 34).
According to McCloud (1995), there are some important elements of a comic strip that
learners need to know such as panels, dialogues, graphics, plot, and gutter (see Figure 1).
The first important element of a comic book is the image. The images in a comic can
be simple or complex, but they must always be visual and tell a story clearly and effectively.
Images can be freehand drawings, digital illustrations, photographs, and black and white
colors, depending on the author’s preference.
The second important element of a comic book is the text. Text in a comic can be
used to provide additional information, develop characters, and explain the plot. In ad-
dition, the text can be in the form of dialogue among characters where they can express
their thoughts or narratives.
The third important element of a comic is the sequence. It is the way that the im-
ages and text are organized to tell a story. The sequence can be linear, with the images
and text arranged in chronological order, or non-linear, with images and text arranged
non-sequentially. The sequence can also be manipulated to create dramatic effects or to
surprise the reader.
Another important element of a comic is the frame. The frame is the border that
surrounds each image in a comic. The frame helps separate the images and text and helps
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The influence of Comics in learning English language during post pandemic period
Figure 2. Overall results of post-test
Note. Mean, Standard Deviation, Minimum, and Maximum scores for the pretest.
the reader understand the sequence. Frames can also be manipulated to create dramatic
effects and to direct the reader’s attention.
Finally, McCloud stresses the importance of the space between panels in the comic.
The space between panels, also known as «gutter», is the white space that separates images
and text. The gutter is important because it allows the reader to fill in the blanks and create
a visual narrative in their mind (1995).
Many students feel inspiration from the comics, and they enjoyed reading in their
earlier years. Comic strips play a significant role in fostering creativity, largely due to the
diverse range of genres one encounters while reading them. This exposure contributes to
the enhancement of learners’ drawing and writing abilities. Furthermore, these comics can
also boost motivation and interest in reading a second language. Beyond their entertain-
ment value, they facilitate comprehension of various scenarios and plotlines through the
incorporation of images. In conclusion, comics are a unique and fascinating form of sto-
rytelling through the combination of images and text. The important elements of a comic
include image, text, sequence, frame, and gutter. By understanding these elements, comic
creators can tell stories in an exciting and visually appealing way.
TYPES OF COMIC STRIPS
Comics, featuring vibrant illustrations, compelling narratives, and relatable characters, pos-
sess the ability to inspire students across all age groups (Sudjana and Rivai, 2009). The in-
clusion of colorful visuals within comics invokes a sense of enjoyment, piquing the reader’s
interest and encouraging them to delve deeper into the storyline. When readers are moti-
vated to engage with the entire comic, the underlying objectives of reading, be it for en-
tertainment or educational purposes, become readily achievable. Particularly for children,
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Tenezaca et al.
colorful comics prove to be a highly captivating medium. Thus, the comic strips are divid-
ed into two types: printed material comic strip and digital comic strips.
1. Printed comic strips
Comic strips are recognized as valuable educational media. Educators employ comic strips
as both instructional content and media tools. Comics weave narratives that revolve around
everyday school environments, allowing students to mimic the language spoken by the
characters, thereby enhancing their English-speaking proficiency. In this context, teachers
play a pivotal role in ensuring the correct pronunciation of the language, making them in-
dispensable contributors to the language-learning process.
Printed materials continue to serve as valuable educational resources, their versatility
allows for utilization in diverse settings and at any time. The incorporation of visuals,
encompassing both images and text, enhances the dissemination of educational content
from teachers to students. To ensure educational success through printed material comic
strip, educators must fulfill four key competencies: pedagogical, personal, social, and pro-
fessional (Rokhayani and Utari, 2014). These competencies collectively strive to facilitate
an efficient and impactful teaching and learning experience, both within and beyond the
confines of the classroom.
2. Digital comic strip
As asserted by Jacobs (2013), comics are often regarded as a distilled form of text, en-
hanced by visual elements to facilitate comprehension for readers. In the construction of
specific meanings, comics harmonize written content with visual imagery, effectively func-
tioning as multimodal texts. Consequently, the act of engaging with comics is deemed a
manifestation of multimodal literacy, transcending the confines of traditional print literacy.
The evolution of the internet, the concept of «digital comics» has also come to the
forefront. Aggleton (2019), in her research, elucidates several fundamental principles
governing digital comics, encompassing their defining characteristics and attributes. There
are three salient characteristics that encapsulate the essence of digital comics.
- Digital form: the comic strips must exclusively exist in digital format or originate as
digital-born comics, created with the intent of digital publication.
- Single panel: digital comics either comprise single-panel images or are composed of a
sequence of interconnected images.
- Semi-guided Reading: comic strips should possess a semi-guided reading pathway, as
they incorporate both written content (representing the guided reading pathway) and
images (representing the unguided reading pathway), thereby situating comics within
the interplay of these two modes.
Regarding their essential aspects, comics must incorporate visible frames, iconic symbols,
and a distinctive handwriting style. Conversely, they should not be construed merely as
moving images or audio recordings.
LEARNING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
As already mentioned, the covid-19 pandemic raised many additional obstacles and chal-
lenges for students and teachers. These aspects make a difficult teaching-learning process in
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The influence of Comics in learning English language during post pandemic period
the classrooms. However, there are a lot of techniques and methods that help learning a for-
eign language such as the translation method, bilingual method, direct method, and so on.
Thus, the teachers should create learning situations to engage in the learning of some
new words. One of the basics of learning a language is learning vocabulary and it is one
of the complex components that learners need to master in language learning. Cabrera,
Castillo, González, Quiñónez, and Ochoa (2018) argue that vocabulary is the bridge to
using and understanding the language and skills such as reading, writing, speaking, and
listening. In this case, comic strips are the perfect tool to learn a language. In addition,
motivation is relevant in that part of learning. Some studies demonstrate that incorporating
new elements into theoretical classes helps the motivation of the student.
The achievement of learners in learning a foreign language within an educational
setting is directly influenced by the effectiveness of their teacher (Gomleksiz 2001). Also,
they say that the study of a language begins when the student wants to communicate
something to someone, and technology could be part of this learning process. Technology
is everything people do, so it should improve the teaching and learning of a language. It
can help us with interactive tasks on web pages, audiovisual platforms, and software on
the internet to improve our vocabulary and grammar with other learners, while sharing
ideas, experiences, new words, and expressions (Chapelle, 2007).
In conclusion, integrating comic strips into the learning process enhances its signifi-
cance and enjoyment. This approach fosters higher level thinking skills such as analytical
abilities, achieved by comparing panels. Cabrera et al. (2018) and Kohnke (2018) endorse
this concept, asserting that comics positively influence second language acquisition. As a
result, incorporating comics empowers students to exercise creative control while experi-
encing a heightened sense of enjoyment.
LEARNING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE USING COMICS
All audiences, including discursive media, facilitate the transmission of sensitive and com-
plex information, and genres facilitate the expression of emotions, and the understanding
of specialized contents that require visual and informative personalization; for example,
post-pandemic comics show the prevention rules that people need to follow. See Figure 2.
This is the case for cartoons and comics, which, in addition to their creativity, expressive-
ness, and joviality, are also used as a means of scientific communication, especially in med-
icine, due to their didactic, illustrative, and didactic potential (García Sánchez and García
Sánchez, 2020; Guerra-Zúñiga and Segovia-Chamorro, 2020; Lalanda, 2019; Mayor Ser-
rano, 2021; and Negrete Yankelevich, 2011) (see Figure 2).
As a result, a private school has chosen to harness the educational potential of comics
as a pedagogical instrument to teach a wide array of reading techniques. These encompass
deciphering the import of visual elements in media content, fostering interactive and dia-
logic reading practices, and honing the ability to recognize problem-solution frameworks
within narrative structures. The educational framework instituted by this private school in-
cludes the development of lesson plans that advocate the establishment of a club christened
«Comic». This club aims to afford students an immersive opportunity to delve deeper into
the world of comics, unraveling their intricate structures and narrative techniques.
Consequently, the utilization of comics as educational tools for learning a language
underscores their efficacy as didactic materials. Comics not only furnish captivating and
motivating content but also offer invaluable visual support to facilitate the process of
learning to read and write.
Based on this study, it can be inferred that comics hold potential for classroom ap-
plication in acquiring fresh vocabulary, enhancing understanding, and fostering reading
41REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Tenezaca et al.
Figure 2. Overall results of post-test
Note. Mean, Standard Deviation, Minimum, and Maximum scores for the pretest.
routines during the period following the pandemic. Although comics traditionally target
younger readers, they present a wellspring of novel and demanding terminology for uni-
versity students. The level of sophistication within a comic can markedly differ based on
factors such as its title, target audience, and underlying goals. This wide array of comic
genres includes adventure, fantasy, romance, humor, and superheroes, among others.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study aimed to know the influence of comics on the acquisition of the English lan-
guage in post-pandemic period. Hence, this investigation will employ descriptive, contras-
tive, and quali-quatitative approaches. The primary objective of descriptive research is to
methodically gather data to depict a phenomenon, circumstance, or population. To be pre-
cise, it aids in addressing inquiries related to what, when, where, and how concerning the
research subject, as opposed to the question of why. Furthermore, it aids in ascertaining
the modification that arise during the implementation of any given activity.
This investigation was conducted in a private high school in Quito, Ecuador. The
participants were 50 students (male and female, aged 14-16 years old) who were taking
efl classes as part of the study plan established by the Ecuadorian Ministry of Education.
The participants received one period (90 minutes per period) of English classes per week
and were enrolled in the first, second, and third year of High school baccalaureate.
In accordance with the guidelines set forth by Cambridge English in 2016, four fun-
damental assessment principles have been established, encompassing validity, reliability,
impact, and practicality. The first principle, validity, underscores the imperative of assess-
ments yielding scores or outcomes that faithfully reflect the true level of ability possessed
by the test taker. The second principle, reliability, emphasizes the necessity for assessment
results to exhibit stability, consistency, and immunity from measurement errors, ensuring
that they can be depended upon as accurate representations of a test taker’s capabilities.
Lastly, the practicality principle considers various logistical factors, including the
availability of resources, financial constraints, time limitations, ease of administration, and
the interpretability of test results. All of these assessment principles were meticulously
considered in the design of the survey to ensure its effectiveness and fairness.
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The influence of Comics in learning English language during post pandemic period
In addition, there was a survey which was conducted to collect the data and it was ad-
ministered to 50 students from the baccalaureate level. The questionnaire was designed
based on the objectives and research questions of the study. The survey was designed in
forms given by Gmail, with three sections and 12 questions. The first section has infor-
mation about the course and year of study. The second section used closed questions and
the last section had open questions related to the use of comics and learners’ experience
using them during English classes.
Finally, this research carries out quali-quantitative methods because we want to
combine the interpretation and understanding of the data. The first one is based on un-
derstanding concepts, thoughts, or experiences through a literature review that exploring
and explaining definitions and theories. The second one is based on numbers and graphs
through an Excel program to test and confirm theories and assumptions.
RESULTS
To interpret the data, it was necessary to see the different results. Once the information
was compared, the analysis of the results was stated. The following results were obtained
from a survey applied to the students to determine the comic strips perspective on the
learning a language after the covid-19 pandemic.
The first question shows the results of a survey asking baccalaureate students whether
they like reading comics and the participants had two possible answers: yes and no. Most
of the participants like to read comics (78.6%). However, a few students (21.4%) do not
like this activity. Most of them were aware that graphic novels serve as engaging resources
within classrooms, and some educators have effectively integrated graphic novels into their
teaching. In a recent article, Nancy Schneider (2007) illustrates how comic books serve
as a bridge to enhance the reading abilities of struggling students and establish rapport
with disheartened learners. Schwartz (2002), a university professor, contends that graphic
novels can act a means to «introduce students to literature they might never otherwise
encounter» (p. 262).
Comics were incorporated into the English curriculum as class project where students
participating in this activity every Friday. During the initial session, students exhibited
curiosity in learning more about comics. Following these informative sessions, the teacher
proceeded to elucidate the components of a comic strip. Among the activities was the
presentation of images, prompting students to converse and share potential expressions to
complete the panels of the strip (see Figure 3).
The 62.5% of the students mentioned that they often read comics. While another
group of students (37.5%) remarked they never read comics. This phenomenon occurs due
to the fact that many readers find comics to be a captivating method for delving into par-
ticular cultures, such as the manga style, and for gaining proficiency in a second language.
As outlined by the research, individuals who read manga are considered “engaged readers”,
as they must devise techniques to navigate the structured layout and amalgamation of visu-
als with diverse textual elements. In other words, manga can be used «to develop students’
awareness and understanding of multiple literacies» and to teach reading strategies, «such
as word recognition and problem solving» (Allen & Ingulsrud, 2003, p. 680).
There was another question about how students learn English through comic strips.
Most of the students (57.1%) mentioned that they believed that comics help to learn a for-
eign language. Several students stated that English may be taught through comics (35.7%).
Only 7.1% believe that comics cannot help to learn English. In this regard, Budiman, Sada,
& Wardah (2018) along with Cabrera, Castillo, González, Quiñónez, & Ochoa (2018),
argue that vocabulary stands as a pivotal component that students must proficiently grasp
43REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Tenezaca et al.
in the process of language learning. This is primarily because vocabulary serves as the
conduit enabling individuals to effectively employ and comprehend a language, facilitating
the development of crucial skills encompassing reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
Consequently, it is imperative for teachers to establish a conducive learning environment
that motivates students to acquire new words.
At the same time a question mentioned that comics help to learn more vocabulary
in a second language and the results show that students can learn more vocabulary using
comics (71%). Meanwhile, the 16.2 % percent of the people voted maybe and the rest with
no sure. Drawing from the data, several compelling arguments in favor of the notion that
comics serve as a valuable tool within the classroom for learning a language. Specifically,
comic strips prove advantageous for vocabulary acquisition. Moreover, in addition to en-
hancing vocabulary, grammar, and reading skills, comic strips also contribute positively
to the development of writing skills. This connection arises from the fact that vocabulary,
grammar and reading proficiency are inherently interconnected with writing skills. As
articulated by Chaikovska (2018), efficacy stems from the learning process’s engagement
with visual aids, including images, photographs, maps, cartoons, and video clips.
DISCUSSION
This investigation highlights several advantages associated with the utilization of comics
in English learning. These benefits are evident in the use of comic strips to enhance vari-
ous language components and skills, including vocabulary, grammar, reading proficiency,
and writing skills. Nonetheless, it is important to know the challenges that both educators
and learners may encounter during the teaching-learning process.
Comic strips play a crucial role in vocabulary improvement, as they reinforce tradi-
tional grammar and vocabulary tasks (Chaikovska, 2018). Furthermore, Megawati (2012)
states that comic strips are effective in helping students grasp vocabulary by using images
and dialogue to convey character expressions. Annex C shows that students complete a
comic strip which uses vocabulary related to Crime. It uses words such as charges, thieve,
officer, and commit a crime and son on. This implies that comics contributes to 1) vo-
Figure 2. Overall results of post-test
Note. Mean, Standard Deviation, Minimum, and Maximum scores for the pretest.
44 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
The influence of Comics in learning English language during post pandemic period
cabulary instruction, 2) vocabulary enhancement, and 3) making the learning process
engaging and meaningful.
On the other hand, there are challenges when incorporating comics into the teaching
process. Using comic strips to teach grammar could be seen as an unconventional strategy
in language learning, leading to resistance, as noted by Fischer (2012), who argues that
comic strips are primarily associated with entertainment. Another challenge is the diverse
ways in which comic strips can be applied in language classrooms. Therefore, teachers must
employ creative approaches to align the use of comic strips with their learning objectives
(Budiman et al, 2018).
Finally, the integration of comics into language learning makes the process more en-
joyable and engaging for students. Comic strips not only stimulate students’ creativity but
also serve as a medium for developing and practicing their target language. Moreover, this
investigation supports the hypothesis that comics have a positive impact on English lan-
guage acquisition among baccalaureate students. Comics could be used effectively to teach
various aspects of language, including vocabulary, grammar, reading skills, and writing
skills, such as teaching modals and pronouns and transforming direct speech into indirect
speech within speech bubbles.
CONCLUSIONS
Numerous studies have provided compelling evidence regarding the efficacy of incorpo-
rating comic strips into language teaching, shedding light on both their advantages and
challenges. The consensus among these studies is that the utilization of comic strips in lan-
guage education yields significant benefits. The use of comic strips helps to express their
thoughts and ideas through visual imagery while simultaneously facilitating language com-
ponents, including vocabulary and grammar, and contributes to the refinement of their
reading and writing skills.
Based on the information provided, it can be inferred that the use of both printed
and digital comic strips serves as an effective English teaching medium for improving vo-
cabulary among Junior High School students. This conclusion is supported by the survey
results, which indicate that learners responded positively to the use of comics in their
language learning experience.
Furthermore, comic strips are deemed suitable and efficient as teaching media due
to their capacity to facilitate the seamless delivery of instructional materials by teachers.
They are also found to be effective in aiding students’ comprehension of the expressions
conveyed by characters within the comics. For instance, comic strips are an effective tool
for teaching vocabulary and grammar, as they can be employed to introduce concepts
like modals and pronouns and even demonstrate the transformation of direct speech into
indirect speech within speech bubbles. Additionally, comic strips provide valuable support
for words and grammar featured in dialogues, rendering the text more comprehensible
and aiding students in their pursuit of written language skills. Further research might be
in comic strip strategies for children and its effect in affective filter in learning a foreign
language environment.
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DOI:
CC BY-NC 4.0 —Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional
© 2023 Universidad Central del Ecuador
pISSN 12631-2840
eISSN 2631-2859
kronos.idiomas@uce.edu.ec
REVISTA KRONOS
INSITUTO ACADÉMICO DE IDIOMAS REVISTA KRONOS
UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024, pp. 47-58
Verónica Herrera Caldas | Universidad Nacional de Educación (Ecuador)
Jessica Ochoa | Universidad Nacional de Educación (Ecuador)
Carmen Morales | Universidad Nacional de Educación (Ecuador)
Axel Calle | Universidad Nacional de Educación (Ecuador)
abstract This study aimed to compare three English textbooks to demonstrate their advantages and disadvantages in
an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context and determine the best option to use. The three English textbooks used
were Touchstone, English File, and Headway. The participants were 187 students from the National University of Edu-
cation (UNAE) in Ecuador. This was a quasi experimental study where quantitative and qualitative data were collected.
A pre-test and post-test were administered to the students at the beginning and end of the study. In addition, a survey
was conducted with the students and a checklist was given to the teachers to collect quantitative data. A survey with
open-ended questions was used to gather qualitative data from the teachers. The results suggested that English File was
the best option for our context because the students learned better and increased their English proficiency compared to
the other two textbooks. Furthermore, the teachers agreed that the English File is more useful because it offers a vari-
ety of resources that reduce teachers' planning time..
Key words Textbook, evaluation, EFL, university
fecha de recepción 30/06/2023 fecha de aprobación 23/08/2023
Pilotaje de tres textos de inglés en la Universidad Nacional de Educación
resumen Este estudio tuvo como objetivo comparar tres libros de texto de inglés para demostrar sus ventajas y desven-
tajas en un contexto de inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL) y determinar la mejor opción a utilizar. Los tres libros de
texto de inglés utilizados fueron Touchstone, English File y Headway. Los participantes fueron 187 estudiantes de la
Universidad Nacional de Educación (UNAE) en Ecuador. Este fue un estudio cuasi experimental donde se recopilaron
datos cuantitativos y cualitativos. Se aplicó una prueba previa y una prueba posterior a los estudiantes al inicio y al final
del estudio. Además, se aplicó una encuesta a los estudiantes y una lista de verificación a los profesores para recopilar
datos cuantitativos. Se utilizó una encuesta a los profesores con preguntas abiertas para recopilar los datos cualitativos.
Los resultados sugirieron que English File fue la mejor opción para nuestro contexto porque los estudiantes aprend-
ieron mejor y aumentaron sus conocimientos de inglés en comparación con los otros dos libros de texto. Además, los
profesores estuvieron de acuerdo en que English File es más útil porque tiene una variedad de recursos que reducen el
tiempo de planificación de los profesores.
palabras clave Libro de texto, evaluación, EFL, universidad.
Pilot testing of three English texts
at the National University of Education
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Methods, techniques, and strategies to motivate students of English as a foreign language to improve the speaking skill
INTRODUCTION
Selecting the right tools for an English lesson is a significant part of teaching English. One
of the most used tools in an English as a Foreign Language (efl) classroom is the text-
book. According to Hutchinson and Torres (1994), no teaching environment is complete
without a relevant textbook, and both teachers and students tend to acknowledge its use-
fulness, especially if it is presented as a package, namely, it is accompanied by multime-
dia and online resources.
Since 2016 the Universidad Nacional de Educación (unae) has been teaching En-
glish in its Language Center using the Touchstone series. However, not all teachers at the
University were satisfied with the Touchstone course book so they decided to consider
other options for a textbook to use to teach English in their classes. Choosing a book that
matches the teachers and students’ needs was fundamental for the University.
Selecting a textbook is a complex task and over the past decades a number of methods
have been created for their evaluation. Many rubrics have been in circulation, but the way
Chambers (1997) lists down some of the pedagogical factors that need to be considered
still seems to be valid: «suitability for the age group, cultural appropriateness, methodology,
level quality, number and type of exercises, skills, teacher’s book, variety, pace, personal
involvement, and problem solving» (pp. 29-30).
Three textbooks were chosen for the evaluation process of this study: Touchstone,
American English File, and American Headway (see the References section for the editions
used). In Ecuador, university students need to reach a B1 level of English in order to grad-
uate (with the exception of those who train to become English teachers, who need to reach
a B2 level); this is stated by the Reglamento de Régimen Académico (2019) (Ecuadorian
Academic Regulation) and in the Ley Orgánica de Educación Superior (2014) (loes -
the Law on Higher Education). Therefore, the aim of the present research project was to
establish which of the three suggested textbooks would fulfill the requirements of creating
the best conditions for our university students to successfully achieve the prescribed level.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The effective evaluation of teaching materials is of paramount importance for efl teachers
(McDonough, Shaw & Masuhara, 2013). The term ‘evaluation’ is best understood as de-
fined by Tomlinson (2003): «Materials evaluation is a procedure that involves measuring
the value (or potential value) of a set of learning materials» (p. 15).
Richards and Renandya (2002) summarize the advantages and disadvantages of
the use of textbooks. Some advantages are: they provide structure and a syllabus for the
program, help standardize instruction, maintain quality, and provide a variety of learn-
ing resources. Furthermore, they are efficient, can provide effective language models and
input, can train teachers, and they are visually appealing. However, there are also some
disadvantages, for example, they may contain inauthentic language, may not meet students’
needs, they can deskill teachers, and are usually expensive (Richards & Renandya, 2002).
The evaluation process usually takes place in two stages. The first is an ‘impression-
istic overview’, while the second is an in-depth evaluation. In McDonough and Shaw’s
interpretation (2003), an external evaluation is based on the overall organization of the
course book as well as the statements that the author makes about it. An internal evalua-
tion involves a deeper analysis of the units and requires the evaluator to reflect on aspects
like the presentation of skills, sequencing and the appropriateness of the texts included.
Course book assessment can be a subjective activity, therefore, Tomlinson (2003) stresses
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Herrera et al.
that this element can be reduced by using a principled and systematic process which applies
a criterion-referenced evaluation.
EVALUATIVE CHECKLISTS
Course book evaluation has been going on for decades now; see especially Mukundan and
Ahour’s work (2010), which contains a review of textbook evaluation checklists for nearly
four decades (1970–2008). Cunningsworth (1995) and McDonough and Shaw (2003)
have created checklists which are based on the understanding that course books should
match learners’ needs and help them learn how to use the language effectively.
Mukundan, Hajimohammadi and Nimehchisalem (2011) provide an exhaustive over-
view of how an English language textbook evaluation checklist can be created. They start
out by defining the terms to be applied as follows: pre-use or predictive evaluation, which
«helps teachers in selecting the most appropriate textbook for a given language classroom»;
in-use evaluation, which «aids the teacher to explore the weaknesses or strengths of the
textbook while it is being used»; and finally, «post-use, or retrospective evaluation, which
helps the teacher reflect on the quality of the textbook after it has been used in a particular
learning-teaching situation» (p. 21).
Mukundan et al. (2011) suggest the following criteria: ‘general attributes’ and ‘learn-
ing-teaching content’ with the first category divided into five sub-categories: Relation to
syllabus and curriculum, Methodology, Suitability to learners, Physical and utilitarian at-
tributes, and Supplementary materials. The second category has the following subdivisions:
General (task quality, cultural sensitivity, linguistic and situational realism), Listening,
Speaking, Reading, Writing, Vocabulary, Grammar, Pronunciation, and Exercises.
The authors emphasize that an ideal checklist needs to be economical as they remind
us of Cunningsworth’s warning: «it is important to limit the number of criteria used,
and the number of questions asked to manageable proportions; otherwise, we risk being
swamped in a sea of detail» (1995, p. 5).
RECENT SCHOLARSHIP AND RESEARCH STUDIES
Gutiérrez Bermúdez (2014) carried out an exercise in course book evaluation by look-
ing at the strengths and weaknesses of the course book New English File: Elementary used
in Colombia. He emphasizes that teachers should develop their own evaluation criteria in-
stead of relying on checklists that might have been created for contexts that are different
from theirs (p. 103). He suggests a structured qualitative evaluation arranged under five
headings: book design, curricular and material design, task design, usability and versatility.
Each of these criteria is formulated as a question with brief instructions for the evaluators
and a rather detailed description of the considerations that should be considered. The re-
sult is exactly the type of assessment that Mukundan et al. (2011) have warned against: a
rather unwieldy and verbose qualitative description resulting in the verdict that the book
in question «has a very solid and verifiable curricular foundation» (p. 109).
In the Vietnamese context, Tu, Trang and Phuong (2013) carried out an in-use eval-
uation of American English File, which is also one of the course books that was evaluated
by the Ecuadorian English teachers who wrote the present paper. The empirical study
involved asking 14 teachers and 103 students to answer the statements of two checklists
(one for the teachers and another one for the students). The authors used a Likert-type
five-point scale to measure attributes like the match of the course book to the specifica-
tions of the syllabus, the learning-teaching content, the appropriateness of the tasks and
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Methods, techniques, and strategies to motivate students of English as a foreign language to improve the speaking skill
the development of various learning styles. Overall, both the teachers and the students of
Ho Chi Minh City University were satisfied with the course book, with the exception of
the development of writing skills, which is, apparently, somewhat neglected.
Shahmohammadi (2018) employed an eclectic checklist to evaluate the textbook
series called Prospect, which is used in junior high schools in Iran. The course book was
written by a team of six Iranian authors: Moghaddam, Khodaparastan, Kheirabadi, Sar-
ab, Foruzndeh and Ghorbani. While Prospect was overall deemed better than the series
used before, the 34 efl teachers gave low marks on many of the 38 items included in the
checklist, such as the authenticity of the materials, the recycling of the vocabulary and the
presentation of pronunciation. A high proportion of the respondents were dissatisfied with
the tasks and activities presented in the course book claiming that they do not sufficiently
motivate and challenge learners.
Lisna (2016) carried out a retrospective (post-use) evaluation of the course book
Speakout Intermediate by creating two questionnaires for four teachers and 21 students,
thereby carrying out a ‘micro-analysis’ based on a fairly small sample of adult learners in
Ukraine. The one for the teachers comprised 30 criteria split into five categories, while
the one for the students was less specific and contained only 15 criteria. Both the teach-
ers’ and the students’ evaluations reflected a high level of satisfaction (no results below
70% agreement). Nevertheless, there was mixed feedback regarding the virtual workbook,
and the criteria related to using the learnt language in real life situations also received a
relatively low score.
Another retrospective evaluation of an elt course book, Fifty-Fifty Book One (Wilson
& Barnard, 2007) was carried out by Jones (2009), who assessed its effectiveness and
appropriacy for a conversation course at a South Korean university. The conversation
program, which is run by native speaker instructors, focused on speaking and listening
skills. Jones adopted McDonough and Shaw’s framework (2003) but eliminated several
criteria that she considered irrelevant. Her main findings are as follows:
- The topics have an appeal to a wide range of learners.
- The material is tailored to the needs of Asian students aspiring to learn American English.
- The dialogues and tasks are culturally Western, owing to a ‘Western’ focus, they need
some adaptation for Asian students.
- The listening scripts are semi-authentic, and mimic possible real-world interactions.
- Active student interaction is encouraged.
The textbook evaluation criteria applied by the researchers for the present study are based
on an adapted version of McDonough and Shaw’s (2003) criteria, which is aimed at ex-
ploring and explaining the weaknesses and strengths of each textbook and selecting the
best option for the university.
METHOD
PARTICIPANTS
The research population of the current study involved all pre-service teachers (who, by
default, take English classes) from the Universidad Nacional de Educación (unae) in Ec-
uador. The sample consisted of 187 students from the different majors, such as early child-
hood education, elementary education, special education, intercultural bilingual education,
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Herrera et al.
science education, arts and humanities pedagogy, and national and foreign language ped-
agogy. The students were attending their first level of English classes with four hours of
English every week for 16 weeks. All the participants were Spanish native speakers and
the students from this semester were going to use the textbooks for the first time, which
we hoped would provide a fresh perspective on the advantages and disadvantages of each
textbook.
After selecting the sample, the three textbooks were examined to decide which gram-
matical structures and vocabulary were going to be taught during the semester so that all
first-level students learned the same grammar and vocabulary. Also, collaborative lesson
planning was used to make sure that the conditions in each classroom were similar.
As for the team working on the evaluation, it included 3 English teacher researchers
who designed the research and taught using the 3 textbooks. The textbooks that were used
during this research were Touchstone 1 (ts), American English File Starter (ef), American
Headway Starter (hs). Teacher researcher 2 (T2) and teacher researcher 3 (T3) used all
three textbooks; however, teacher researcher 1 (T1) only used English File and Headway.
RESEARCH DESIGN AND INSTRUMENTS
The research project adopted a quasi-experimental method approach to accomplish a com-
parative study of the three English textbooks. Data gathering was carried out by adminis-
tering a pre-test, a post-test, and a survey to the students, as well as a textbook checklist
(for quantitative data) and a survey (for qualitative data) for the teachers.
Students took a pre-test and post-test which was an adapted version of the Macmillan
Straightforward beginner and elementary placement test (Kerr, Jones, Clandfield, Norris,
& Scrivener, 2012). The test consisted of thirty multiple-choice questions. The first twen-
ty-five were grammar questions and the final five were vocabulary questions. Students gave
both tests in person, in a hard-copy format. The pre-test was taken at the beginning of
the semester and aimed to identify the students’ English level. The post-test was used to
measure students’ learning at the end of the semester. Applying a pre-test and a post-test
not only allowed teachers to gauge how much students increased their knowledge and
understanding of the English language but also to compare students’ progress in the classes
that were using the three textbooks.
As mentioned above, data collection also included two surveys and a checklist. Firstly,
at the end of the semester, an online survey was administered to the students by google
forms. Students were asked to provide their answers on a scale of four options (1 = stan-
dard, 2 = good, 3 = very good, and 4 = excellent). The survey was given to the students
in their native language (Spanish) so that they could have a better understanding of the
questions. It consisted of three parts with four questions in each. The first part focused
on the content and vocabulary of the textbook. The second part of the survey referred
to the exercises and the physical aspect of the textbook. The last part of the survey asked
students for their opinion about the virtual platform of the textbook that they were using.
The questions of our survey were based on McDonough and Shaw’s (2003) criteria.
A textbook checklist, which was adapted from Mukundan et al. (2011) was ad-
ministered to the teacher researchers. This checklist asked for the evaluation of general
attributes, methodology, suitability for learners, physical and utilitarian attributes, efficient
layout of supplementary materials, and the learning-teaching content. All the teacher re-
searchers filled in the checklist for each of the textbooks they used during the treatment.
Additionally, a survey was filled out by the teacher researchers. The survey consisted
of six open questions about the different English textbooks they were using. These ques-
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tions were also based on Mukundan et al.’s (2011) checklist. This survey was applied to
gather the teacher researchers’ more in-depth points of view.
RESULTS
A total of n = 187 students participated in the tests and were divided as follows: Touch-
stone 45, English File 73 and Headway 69. Table 1 shows the pretest and posttest rat-
ings of the different texts: Touchstone, English File and Headway. It also shows that there
was a 5.71 improvement in the students that used Touchstone, 6.68 improvement with
English File, and a 5.85 improvement with Headway. Although the differences in the test
results are minimal, students using the English File course book seem to have achieved a
marginally better score.
Table 1 presents relevant results for the pretest analysis, as it shows that the 3 groups
are very similar when comparing their mean and median values. However, a better mode
value in the pretest rating is displayed in the Touchstone group, with a rating of 13,
compared to the other 2 groups with ratings of 9 and 10. The standard deviation values
suggest that the pretest scores are more clustered around the mean in the 3 groups. Addi-
tionally, the pretest rank values are high in the English file and Touchstone groups, with
very low scores of 2 and 4, respectively.
On the other hand, this chart presents aspects of the posttest that suggest improve-
ment in all groups. The similarity of improvement is on par in the 3 groups, highlighting
the groups that used Headway and Touchstone by the mode value in the posttest with
a rating of 21 equally, and much lower for the English file group with a posttest rating
of 18. The standard deviation values have decreased in the groups, denoting a clustering
closer to the mean compared to the pretest, which was more slightly dispersed, reflecting
the intervention of each of the texts used by the teachers. Overall, it can be said that the
3 groups have improved their English skills, since when analyzing the range of minimum
and maximum scores compared to the pretest and posttest, they have raised their ratings.
In the next section, we will review the online survey filled out by the students. Table
1 and 2 touch upon the topics presented in the three textbooks, and Table 4 presents
questions related to the virtual platform of each textbook.
Let us first look at how students evaluated the topics and content of the textbooks.
The data shown in table 2 demonstrate that students’ level of interest in the topics
presented in each textbook is similar for English File and Touchstone. However, English
File’s content seems to be the most relevant to students’ needs and it also appears to pres-
ent the most adequate amount of vocabulary. Furthermore, when we look at both the Very
Good and Excellent scores, the textbook that contains the easiest topics to understand is
English File.
Table 3 illustrates students’ perspective on the exercises, activities, and presentation
of the textbooks.
As the results of this table show, Touchstone appears to have the right amount of va-
riety of exercises in line with the topics learned. Students can practice exercises that have
clear instructions and require no guidance. It needs to be pointed out that English File has
grammar exercises that are followed by vocabulary and pronunciation activities and every
unit ends with a communicative activity where students apply the content of the whole
unit. The students believe that Headway provides the right amount of practice. Finally,
English File has the highest level of acceptance regarding the presentation of the textbook
because it has some videos with appropriate content to improve English proficiency.
Table 4 presents the data on the virtual platform and multimedia resources of
each textbook.
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Table 1. Pre- and post-test results
Pretest
Headway
Post test
Headway
Pretest English
file
Post test English
file
Pretest
Touchstone
Post test
Touchstone
Valid N = 69 N = 69 N = 73 N = 73 N = 45 N = 45
Mean 13,90 19,75 13,40 20,08 13,33 19,04
Median 13,00 21,00 13,00 20,00 13,00 19,00
Mode 9,00a 21,00 10,00 18,00 13,00 21,00
Std. Deviation 4,11 4,31 4,38 3,45 5,34 4,03
Range 18,00 18,00 25,00 14,00 21,00 16,00
Minimum 7,00 11,00 2,00 13,00 4,00 10,00
Maximum 25,00 29,00 27,00 27,00 25,00 26,00
a. Multiple modes exist. The smallest value is shown.
Source: Data gathered by the authors
Table 2. Content and topics
categories
stan-
dard
good very
good
ex-
cel-
lent
1. Level of interest
2. Level of relevance
3. Level of comprehension
Table 3. Practice and presentation
categories
ts ef hw ts ef hw ts ef hw ts ef hw
standard (%) good (%) very good (%) excellent (%)
5. Variety of exercises 10 6 9 31 37 33 59 57 58
6. Helpful activities 7 4 4 38 65 51 61 31 44
7. Sufficient practice 3 2 0 3 4 2 41 45 51 52 49 47
8. Textbook presentation 7 0 0 10 4 0 24 29 40 59 67 60
Source: Data gathered by the authors
Table 4. Virtual platform and multimedia resources
categories
ts ef hw ts ef hw ts ef hw ts ef hw
standard (%) good(%) very good (%) excellent (%)
9. Relevance of videos in the textbook 3 0 2 10 8 16 21 37 44 55 49 36
10. Ease of use of the virtual platform 3 10 9 17 10 13 415 31 51 38 49 27
11. Level of practice on the virtual
platform 0 4 4 14 10 9 48 27 47 38 59 40
12. Level of interactive exercises 0 1 0 14 15 7 38 38 7 48 46 40
Source: Data gathered by the authors
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Methods, techniques, and strategies to motivate students of English as a foreign language to improve the speaking skill
The results show that Touchstone has the most relevant videos. However, English File is
perceived as the most useful platform where students could learn doing a variety of exer-
cises to improve their English. Also, students viewed the virtual platform of English File
as the one with the most appropriate level of practice, whereas Touchstone provided stu-
dents with the largest number of interactive exercises.
TEACHERS’ SURVEY
After the instruction process, the teacher researchers filled in a survey questionnaire con-
taining a series of open-ended questions comparing the three books. The questions were
adapted from McDonough and Shaw (2003) and aimed at collecting the teachers’ im-
pressions and evaluations of the textbooks. The layout of the survey helped the teacher re-
searchers organize their reflections methodically.
English File and Touchstone were considered easy to use by all teachers, as they
contain clear objectives and many different types of activities that are well-linked. The
teachers had more difficulty using Headway as the objectives were not that clear and it
was more difficult to understand the activities. The main characteristics evaluated in the
survey are listed below. For easy reference, the books’ names are abbreviated: English File
(ef), Headway (hw) and Touchstone (ts).
EASE OF USE AND PLANNING LESSONS, ACTIVITIES, AND UNIT OBJECTIVE CLARITY
Teacher researchers 1 and 2 agreed that all three textbooks are easy to follow. Teacher
researcher 3 stated that hw was somewhat harder to handle since the contents were not
well-connected with the grammar points, and some topics were difficult to explain.
All teacher researchers believed ef presents many carefully designed activities that are
easy to understand both for teachers and students. However, the vocabulary and grammar
activities are inconveniently located at the end of the textbook.
Concerning unit objectives, teacher-researchers 2 and 3 found hw’s objectives not as
clear as those of the other two textbooks, while teacher researcher 1 thought that the unit
objectives were very clear in all three textbooks.
PLATFORM USE (USER-FRIENDLY/DIFFICULT/NON-EXISTENT)
Students worked with the virtual platforms that ef and hw provided, whereas teachers de-
cided not to work with the ts platform because of its price and, therefore, students only
worked with the student’s book. The virtual platforms presented several inconveniences:
some students’ grades did not register properly in the teachers’ grade books, and another
issue was that students often forgot their passwords, making it difficult to send them the
activities as homework.
EXTRA PREPARATION NEEDED TO DELIVER LESSONS
All teacher researchers said that ef contains enough materials to deliver the lessons. What is
more, it provides extra materials that are useful for tutorials. As opposed to this, when using
the hw textbook, the teacher researchers were required to find complementary materials to
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Herrera et al.
explain grammar and provide extra practice. As for the Touchstone textbook, they agreed
that looking for additional material proved time-consuming. This became necessary be-
cause they had to find different resources to reinforce the grammar presented.
BOOK ORGANIZATION (PICTURE, GRAMMAR PRESENTATION, SKILLS, TOPICS SEQUENCE)
As teacher researcher 1 worked only with ef and hw, she did not comment on ts in the
remaining part of the survey.
All teacher researchers agreed on ef being a textbook that progresses gradually and
presents grammar in chunks in an easy way to teach beginners. Teacher researchers 2 and
3 thought that hw’s main drawback is the way grammar is presented since it is integrated
into the book without any explicit explanation or practice, leading to the opinion that its
contents are not well-organized.
Considering skills, teacher researchers 2 and 3 stated that although hw is communi-
cation-oriented, its tests are grammar-based, which constitutes a contradiction. They also
agreed that the ts textbook is presented in a well-organized fashion. However, one clear
disadvantage is its lack of meaningful listening activities.
The teacher researchers stated that they prefer real images, over cartoons, as used in
hw and ts.
DO THE TOPICS ALIGN WITH STUDENTS’ INTERESTS AND CONTEXT?
All teacher-researchers considered the topics contained in ef and hw suitable for begin-
ners; most of them are interesting and contextualize English culture. TS also has some en-
gaging topics, however, some of them are not relevant for students, because several topics
are probably more appropriate for mature learners.
ACCESS TO THE BOOK’S EVALUATIONS, TESTS, AND QUIZZES
Teacher researchers mentioned that ef has a wide range of evaluation tools available on
the Assessment cd, and these are easy to download and edit. They also agreed on how they
judged hw’s evaluation resources, which are not as vast as ef’s resources and nor are they
editable. ts provides fewer evaluation resources than the other two textbooks, and the Test
Crafter is not user-friendly.
DISCUSSION
The pre-test and post-test comparative statistics show that students’ initial proficiency
scores were congruent in the three groups with slight variation between them, this means
that the groups’ starting bases were similar. Furthermore, they were evidenced subtle dif-
ferences between data of the three books, the use of English File helped students to make a
marginally greater progress in test performance, ef obtained the highest mean of the three
and the lowest range of variance and standard deviation; however, we cannot claim that
these results in themselves are conclusive evidence to declare that English File is more ef-
fective because of several limitations that will be discussed later on.
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Methods, techniques, and strategies to motivate students of English as a foreign language to improve the speaking skill
The results of the students’ survey showed that all three textbooks were generally
well-received. Nevertheless, the English File textbook had the most positive responses
overall, on the grounds that it has the most relevant topics presented in the most appeal-
ing manner. As for the linkages between grammar, vocabulary and exercises, the variety
of exercises and how interactive and interesting the exercises are, the students’ responses
showed that there was little difference between the three books. Even though the students’
opinions are important, since their views are crucial in deciding which textbook would be
most suited to their needs, the students did not have the opportunity to examine and use
all three textbooks. This means that they could not compare the books, since they were
only exposed to the textbook that was assigned to their particular group.
According to the findings of the checklist, the features encountered in English File
stand out over the other textbooks. These results overlap with the students’ choice. We
consider that in the teaching-learning process it is important that, as suggested by Mc-
Donough and Shaw (2003), both students and teachers agree on the textbook that fits
their needs and interests.
Results from the teachers’ survey showed an agreement that English File provided the
largest amount of appropriate material, meaning that it was easier and quicker for teach-
ers to plan classes. At the other end of the scale, Touchstone does not provide enough
communicative activities to use in the class and its topics were deemed more suitable for
mature learners. It needs to be pointed out, though, that, as mentioned earlier, students
were not given either Touchstone’s workbook or its platform, consequently they did not
have the experience of working with the complete Touchstone material. In terms of con-
tent, English File received the most positive responses. The teachers liked the fact that
the grammar was taught in small, manageable chunks and the students were given lots of
practice. English File applies a solid scaffolding process which has proven beneficial to the
students.
From all these findings, it is clear that all three textbooks have their advantages
and disadvantages, and there is no perfect option. However, overall, the students’ online
survey, the teachers’ checklists, and their survey, showed that English File would be the
most suitable textbook at unae. A more recent consideration in favor of ef is that it is also
compatible with the current context of online learning because its lessons have enough ma-
terial that can be adapted to remote lessons. Considering the wide range of resources that
English File provides for students and teachers to contribute to their English instruction
and learning, teachers from unae’s Language Center decided to change the actual textbook
(namely, Touchstone) to English File.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The study had to deal with some drawbacks and limitations. Firstly, the pre-test and post-
test applied were multiple choice and therefore the students’ results were subject to an ele-
ment of luck, although the chance factor would have applied to all learners and could have
distorted the results in equal measure. Secondly, several other factors such as teachers’ ef-
fectiveness and learners’ individual characteristics, for example, motivation and learning
styles can also affect students’ achievements and progress. Furthermore, most students in-
volved in the study were first-semester students that had studied at public high schools
where either no course books or only low-quality textbooks provided by the government
were used. This means that, for the majority of the students, this was their first experi-
ence using an English textbook from a world-renowned publisher (Oxford or Cambridge).
These factors limited the students’ ability to evaluate any of the three textbooks in a so-
phisticated manner.
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Herrera et al.
CONCLUSION
Teaching English as a Foreign Language at university level in Ecuador is not an easy task,
students from different ethnic and language backgrounds come together in the first year
of university and working with that wide range of cultures and backgrounds make the ex-
perience challenging. However, standardizing the instruction with the help of high-qual-
ity English textbooks is a possible solution to cope with this challenge. Testing the three
textbooks gave teacher researchers the opportunity to reflect on their own teaching prac-
tices and how textbook contents fulfill learners’ needs and interests.
The teacher-researchers’ experiences during the carrying out of this study was re-
warding and satisfactory since they had the opportunity to analyze several textbooks and,
therefore, they functioned not just as practitioners but also as curriculum designers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We sincerely acknowledge the help from the three participating teachers, Diana González,
Emily Larke, and Jéssica Ochoa, who delivered the classes and arranged for data collection
from their students. We also thank the Language Center Coordinator, Agnes Orosz for al-
lowing us to accomplish our project. Finally, we appreciate the invaluable help of Eliza-
beth Bekes, who guided our research and supported us in our research work.
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kronos.idiomas@uce.edu.ec
REVISTA KRONOS
INSITUTO ACADÉMICO DE IDIOMAS REVISTA KRONOS
UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024, pp. 59-75
DOI:
CC BY-NC 4.0 —Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional
© 2023 Universidad Central del Ecuador
Carlos Díaz Ortiz | Universidad Central del Ecuador (Ecuador)
abstract This study centers on second language English learners and their limited vocabulary proficiency. Morpholog-
ical awareness is acknowledged as crucial for developing lexical competence. This review explores the implications of
morphological awareness (structure, analysis, and decoding) on lexical competence (vocabulary breadth, depth, and or-
ganization). The methodology employed is socio-educational, bibliographic, descriptive, and documentary. The transfer
technique facilitated gathering and analyzing relevant bibliographic records. Databases such as ERIC, Scopus, Wiley On-
line Library, ABELL, Google Scholar, university repositories, and international journals were utilized, in turn, manual
filters and keywords enhanced information gathering. Findings demonstrate that morphological awareness significantly
enhances lexical proficiency in English across all dimensions. Grasping inflectional, derivational, and compounded forms
enhances vocabulary breadth, depth, and organization. This awareness aids word recognition, comprehension, relation-
ships, nuances, and meanings. Appreciating morphological patterns assists in word classification and arrangement and
its pivotal role in increasing lexical proficiency benefits vocabulary organization, depth, and breadth. Educators can im-
plement effective teaching techniques, emphasizing inflection, derivation, and lexical compounding, to enhance students'
lexical competence and English proficiency, leveraging the scope of morphological awareness.
Key words Morphological awareness, lexical competence, inflection, derivation, lexical compounding, vocabulary breadth,
vocabulary depth, vocabulary organization, language learning.
fecha de recepción 20/06/2023 fecha de aprobación 28/08/2023
Conciencia morfológica para el desarrollo de la competencia léxica del idioma inglés
resumen Este estudio se centra en los estudiantes de inglés como segunda lengua y su limitado dominio del vocabular-
io. Se reconoce que la conciencia morfológica es crucial para el desarrollo de la competencia léxica. Esta revisión ex-
plora las implicaciones de la conciencia morfológica (estructura, análisis y decodificación) en la competencia lexical
(amplitud, profundidad y organización del vocabulario). La metodología empleada es socioeducativa, bibliográfica, de-
scriptiva y documental. La técnica de transferencia facilitó la recopilación y el análisis de los registros bibliográficos per-
tinentes. Se utilizaron bases de datos como ERIC, Scopus, Wiley Online Library, ABELL, Google Scholar, repositorios
universitarios y revistas internacionales; a su vez, los filtros manuales y las palabras clave mejoraron la recopilación de
información. Los resultados demuestran que la conciencia morfológica mejora significativamente la competencia léxica
en inglés en todas sus dimensiones. La comprensión de las formas flexivas, derivativas y compuestas aumenta la ampli-
tud, profundidad y organización del vocabulario. Este conocimiento facilita el reconocimiento, la comprensión, las rela-
ciones, los matices y los significados de las palabras. Apreciar los patrones morfológicos ayuda a clasificar y ordenar las
palabras, y su papel fundamental en el aumento de la competencia léxica favorece la organización, la profundidad y la
amplitud del vocabulario. Los educadores pueden aplicar técnicas de enseñanza eficaces, haciendo hincapié en la inflex-
ión, la derivación y la composición léxica, para mejorar la competencia léxica de los estudiantes y su dominio del inglés,
aprovechando el alcance de la conciencia morfológica.
palabras clave Genetic Conciencia morfológica, competencia léxica, flexión, derivación, composición léxica, amplitud de
vocabulario, profundidad de vocabulario, organización del vocabulario, aprendizaje de idiomas.
Morphological awareness for the development of
the lexical competence of the English language
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Morphological awareness for the development of the lexical competence of the English language
MORPHOLOGICAL AWARENESS
As a linguistic awareness skill, morphological awareness refers to the capacity to identify
and comprehend the smallest elements of meaning in language (Apel, 2014). This ability
is often seen as a sort of metalinguistic awareness, which entails the capacity to consider
language as a system, according to research (Li & Wu, 2015). Students learning English as
a second language benefit from discerning complex English expressions (Newton, 2018),
improving vocabulary, reading, writing, and overall communication.
The term «ability» here alludes to a metalinguistic capacity to comprehend, con-
sider, and change morphemic qualities, which enables one to expand words into more
intricate and nuanced forms. In contrast to morphological awareness, which involves a
more comprehensive grasp of morphemic aspects in words (Carlisle et al., 2010), mor-
phological knowledge includes an explicit understanding of the meaning of a root word
(Pacheco & Goodwin, 2013). Students that possess morphological awareness abilities
can identify distinctions in meaning between words that have the same root but various
affixes (such as help, helpful, helpless, and unhelpful). Numerous research supports the
idea that morphological awareness is crucial for vocabulary learning, teaching, and gen-
eral reading competency.
ASPECTS OF MORPHOLOGICAL AWARENESS
Research has delved into three aspects of morphological awareness, namely structure, anal-
ysis, and decoding (Deacon et al., 2017; Kuo & Anderson, 2006; Levesque et al., 2021;
MacKay et al., 2017), which offer a basis for comprehending how learners acquire knowl-
edge about the organization and purpose of English language, especially in relation to read-
ing and expanding their vocabulary.
The structure aspect involves understanding the complexity of the writing system and
how spelling affects inflection, derivation, and lexical compounding (Berg et al., 2014).
Analysis, the second aspect, involves dissecting unfamiliar words into free and bound
morphemes (Wagner et al., 2007). Decoding, the third aspect, entails identifying morphe-
mic units in words, pronouncing them, and blending them, combining orthographical and
phonological features in word reading (Levesque & Deacon, 2022; Deacon et al., 2017;
MacKay et al., 2017). Language teachers can gain a better grasp of the facets of morpho-
logical awareness and how they affect the learning of the English language through the
study of these aspects.
Structure
English writing is influenced by morphological information, aiding readers in understand-
ing the writing system (Levesque & Deacon, 2022). Research emphasizes studying word
formation processes, like inflection, derivation, and compounds, as part of morphological
awareness (W. Choi et al., 2018). It involves recognizing morphemes as units of meaning
(Varga et al., 2020), crucial for lexical competence (McCutchen et al., 2022). Lack of un-
derstanding can lead to vocabulary mistakes (Apel, 2014; Brandes & McMaster, 2017).
Recognizing word structure helps correct vocabulary errors, leading to a richer vocabu-
lary (Lubliner & Hiebert, 2011). Morphological awareness is especially beneficial for bi-
lingual students (Lubliner & Hiebert, 2011). Understanding word processes facilitates
effective communication and vocabulary acquisition (Varga et al., 2020). This knowledge
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contributes to their overall morphological awareness, facilitating effective language com-
munication and vocabulary acquisition.
Inflection. Comprehending word structure and meaning is essential (Carlisle, 2000).
Inflection adds morphemes to a word’s root for tense, number, or degree in English (Berns
& Brown, 2010). Understanding English inflection is crucial for morphological awareness
(Hurrel, 2019). It leads to better vocabulary and reading comprehension (Deacon et al.,
2007). Inflectional morphemes change word form and definition, like regular verbs with
tense (e. g., call-called, work-worked) and nouns with plurality (e. g., dog-dogs). Reading
ability correlates with morphological competence (Deacon et al., 2007). Inflectional mor-
phological awareness affects word reading and comprehension (Müller & Brady, 2001;
Rothou & Padeliadu, 2015). Derivational morphology links to decoding and comprehen-
sion. Lack of inflection knowledge leads to errors in sentence structure and meaning.
Derivation. Derivation is vital for morphological awareness (Ke et al., 2021), forming
new words by modifying the base lexeme (e. g., walk, walk-er). It involves adding prefixes
and suffixes to base words (Oz, 2014), strengthening word arrangement and connections.
Derivational morphology aims to create new words with related meanings, being lexical
and less influenced by grammatical context (Deng et al., 2016). Exposure to words like
actuality, typical, and dehumanization enhances morphological knowledge (Kieffer &
Box, 2013), allowing learners to deduce meaning by identifying constituent morphemes.
Derivational morphology in Spanish and English is similar but lacks research in L2 theory
(Deng et al., 2016). Learners must grasp relational, syntactic, and distributional knowl-
edge. Relational morphology recognizes shared morphemes and meanings, while syntactic
morphology identifies suffixes’ syntactic categories (e. g., -th in «length») (Wu & Juffs,
2022). Distributional morphology involves stem-suffix combinations (e. g., -er in «player»)
(Wu & Juffs, 2022).
Errors may occur in vocabulary usage, such as word form confusion and affix misuse
(Kusumawardhani, 2018). Empowering learners with morphological awareness aids efl
instruction (Badawi, 2019), enhancing vocabulary depth and establishing a solid founda-
tion for lexical competence and English language comprehension.
Lexical compounding. Morphemes are small language units with distinct meanings.
Comprehending their combination and rules is crucial for morphological awareness (X.
Sun et al., 2022). Lexical compounding combines words to form new ones (Berns &
Brown, 2010). It’s a common method in many languages, categorized into open, hyphen-
ated, and closed compounds (Berg et al., 2014).
Compounds fall into endocentric and exocentric types (Ten Hacken, 2017). Endo-
centric compounds have a clear head word (e. g., darkroom), while exocentric ones don’t
(e. g., skinhead) (Ten Hacken, 2017). Lexical compounding aids vocabulary development.
It helps understand unfamiliar words and read accurately (Carlisle, 2000; P. D. Liu & Mc-
Bride-Chang, 2010). Errors may occur in word combinations or identifying compounds.
Learning compounding rules enhances language flexibility and expression. Knowing com-
pound patterns improves overall vocabulary usage.
Analysis
Analysis is vital for breaking down lexical items into free and bound morphemes to deduce
meanings (Deacon et al., 2017). Morphological analysis aids vocabulary development, im-
proving writing and speech expression (Nagy, 2014). Lexical categories (open-class) and
functional categories (closed-class) are crucial components of the theory (Kaplan, n.d.).
Students can determine unfamiliar word meanings based on relevant stems and suffixes
(McCutchen & Logan, 2011), enhancing language production through building semantic
networks. English has two main morpheme types: free and bound (Brown et al., 2010).
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Morphological awareness for the development of the lexical competence of the English language
Free morphemes stand alone with distinct meanings (e. g., «dog», «run»), while bound
morphemes require attachment (e. g., «re-» in «rearrange», «-ful» in «successful») (Brown
et al., 2010). Analyzing words into their constituent morphemes, free and bound (Wag-
ner et al., 2007), helps language learners see how structural variations result in changes
in meaning, producing lexical units that share a similar one.
Free morphemes. The English morpheme boundaries may have an impact on graph-
eme-phoneme mappings (Levesque & Deacon, 2022). In the words «father» and «fathead»,
for instance, the letters «t» and «h» represent one phoneme in the former and two in the
latter, making it easier to recognize the terms. The identification of word class through
the knowledge of free morphemes plays a crucial role in word formation and lexical com-
petence (Goodwin et al., 2017). «A free base (often called a free morpheme) can stand
on its own».
Free morphemes stand alone, classified into open-classed (nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs) and closed-class (conjunctions, prepositions, determiners) (Coch et al., 2020).
Knowing free morphemes helps form new words by combining them meaningfully (Henry,
2019). Interaction with bound morphemes creates new lexical items, enriching English
vocabulary (Henry, 2019). Understanding word class characteristics expands learners’
vocabulary and language skills (Berninger et al., 2010). Analyzing these morphemes allows
predicting new words and inferring meanings (Coch et al., 2020).
Bound morphemes. Bound morphemes are essential for word formation but cannot
function independently (Brown et al., 2010). They are divided into affixes (inflectional
and derivational) and roots. Inflectional morphemes change grammatical category (e. g.,
‘run’ to ‘ran’ or ‘running’) (Carlisle, 2000), while derivational morphemes create new
words with altered class or meaning (Coch et al., 2020). Understanding their role aids
vocabulary expansion and effective communication.
The analysis of bound morphemes is crucial for enhancing vocabulary development
in English as a second language (Henry, 2019). By analysing the meaning and function
of bound morphemes, language learners can more easily recognize the meaning of lex-
ical items, which can in turn help expand their vocabulary. Additionally, the knowledge
of bound morphemes can help learners to predict the meaning of unfamiliar words and
to identify word relationships and patterns, which can be beneficial for their reading
comprehension skills. In this sense, in accordance with Pastizzo and Feldman (2004)
«Morphologically complex words are composed of multiple morphemes; therefore, some
researchers have proposed that in the course of recognition, a lexical “processor” parses
complex words into constituent morphemes, and that lexical access then proceeds via the
stem» (p. 31). Thus, the analysis of bound morphemes can lead to a more sophisticated
understanding of English language and facilitate its learning.
DECODING
Decoding is vital for morphological awareness, using word structure to accurately pro-
nounce words (Levesque et al., 2017). It aids learners in reading complex lexical items
through written symbol manipulation and identifying phonological patterns (Levesque et
al., 2017). Phonological and orthographic metrics (Deacon et al., 2017; MacKay et al.,
2017) assess word reading progress, forming the referential framework for morphologi-
cal awareness (Levesque & Deacon, 2022). To improve decoding abilities, teachers should
provide tools like transcription, syllabic segmentation, and text-to-speech software (Dea-
con et al., 2017; MacKay et al., 2017).
Children may read more slowly in complex orthographies like English due to chal-
lenging decoding (Varga et al., 2020). Deep orthographies require morphological knowl-
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edge, while shallow orthographies like Spanish have clear spelling-sound links (Varga et al.,
2020). Learners use sound-letter correspondence and morphological structure to decode
words. Phonology and orthography are crucial in decoding (Berninger et al., 2010; Deacon
et al., 2017). Phonological features involve language sound patterns, while orthographical
features refer to word spelling (Berninger et al., 2010). Decoding aids accurate and fluent
reading, improving vocabulary acquisition and comprehension, building a strong foun-
dation for English language proficiency and lexical competence (Berninger et al., 2010).
Phonological features. English is a morphophonemic language, meaning that the sound
of words is influenced by the presence or absence of certain morphemic units. In other
words, English spelling and pronunciation can change based on morphological awareness
factors, such as the knowledge of affixes or word roots (Kuo & Anderson, 2006). Pho-
nological features play a crucial role in morphological awareness, especially in the aspect
of decoding in English, which is a morphophonemic language. The sound of words can
be influenced by the presence or absence of certain morphemic units, such as affixes or
word roots (Kuo & Anderson, 2006). Phonological features refer to the sounds of speech,
including phonemes, syllables, stress, and intonation (Berns & Brown, 2010). When learn-
ers decode words at the morpheme level, phonological processes come into play. Stress
patterns, syllable sounds, and speech intonation can all impact how words are pronounced
(Berninger et al., 2010). Additionally, phonological processes like assimilation and deletion
can influence word pronunciation, making it challenging for learners to decode complex
words accurately (Berns & Brown, 2010).
For English, being an alphabetic language, mastering alphabetic orthography in-
volves creating a graphic model of the phonological system and mapping graphemes to
phonemes (Schiff & Calif, 2007). Understanding how phonological processes work and
applying them correctly is crucial for effective decoding of morphologically complex words
(MacKay et al., 2017). Learners who lack decoding skills may make phonological mis-
takes, struggle to recognize syllable boundaries, blend sounds, or stress syllables correctly
(Berninger et al., 2010). This can lead to mispronunciations of words and hinder their
reading comprehension and overall vocabulary development.
Orthographical features. An orthographic feature refers to a specific aspect of spelling,
such as letter arrangement, vowel sounds, or stress patterns (Berns & Brown, 2010). These
features can be understood as the graphical representation of the sounds (graphemes) and
their combinations are crucial to understanding why spelling in English may differ from
pronunciation (Kuo & Anderson, 2006). An example of orthographic features in English
is the representation of vowel sounds such as «a», «e», «i», «o», «u», and «y», as well as
consonant combinations like «th», «sh», «ch», and «ph».
Learners who struggle with decoding may find it challenging to identify and compre-
hend orthographic features, leading to spelling errors (Levesque et al., 2021). For instance,
they might misspell words by omitting or replacing certain letters, such as writing «difer-
ence» instead of «difference» or «separate» instead of «separate». These mistakes are often
a result of not recognizing the specific letter combinations that make up the morphemes
in words. By learning and recognizing common spelling patterns and orthographic fea-
tures (Spalding, 2002), non-native English speakers can better predict how words will be
spelled, leading to more successful decoding and comprehension.
WORD READING
When it comes to morphological awareness, word reading refers to the ability to read un-
familiar words by sounding out the letters and blending the sounds together (Tong et al.,
2017). The process of sight word reading is characterized by the formation of systematic
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Morphological awareness for the development of the lexical competence of the English language
visual-phonological connections between spellings and pronunciations of words in mem-
ory, facilitated by the knowledge of letter-sound relations (Tong et al., 2017). It enables
readers to recognize words quickly, without the need for decoding, unless the word is new
to them (Ehri, 2017; Menard & Wilson, 2014). This process is essential in English, as it is
a morphophonemic language where the spelling of words can be quite different from their
pronunciation (Kuo & Anderson, 2006). This skill becomes even more important as the
learner encounters more complex words that contain multiple morphemes, such as «un-
comfortably» or «unpredictable».
LEXICAL COMPETENCE
The term «lexical competence» refers to one’s ability to use and understand language effec-
tively (Rychka & Lisovska, 2022). It encompasses understanding the meaning of words,
their appropriate usage in different contexts, and their interactions within the language
(Zhou & Dai, 2016). Lexical incompetence may lead to misunderstandings and ineffec-
tive communication (Polatovna & Qizi, 2020). Enhancing English lexical competence
involves recognizing and comprehending the form and meaning of words, known as mor-
phological awareness (Spencer et al., 2015). This metalinguistic skill also aids efl learn-
ers in pronouncing complex words correctly, using grapheme-phoneme correspondences
in morphemic units (morphological decoding) (Spencer et al., 2015).
DIMENSIONS OF LEXICAL COMPETENCE
Among three to four dimensions of lexical competency have been posed in the overarch-
ing literature (Chapelle, 1999; Nation, 2001; Qian, 2002; Zareva et al., 2005); however,
this study will only comprise the most important three: vocabulary breadth, vocabulary
depth, and vocabulary organization. The range and diversity of words’ form, meaning and
usage that a student is familiar with is referred to as vocabulary breadth (Rashidi & Khos-
ravi, 2010), whereas vocabulary depth refers to the amount of understanding of each lex-
ical unit, including its many syntactic, semantic, collocational properties, etc. (Rychka &
Lisovska, 2022). The final dimension, vocabulary organization, is how lexical items are
stored, connected, and retrieved in the learner’s mind (Webb, 2020). Knowing these fac-
tors can aid in the methodical development of lexical competence in learners as well as the
construction of more effective teaching methods by teachers.
Vocabulary breadth
Vocabulary breadth involves more than word quantity; it encompasses form, meaning, and
usage (Harkio & Pietilä, 2016; Kezhen, 2015; Ordóñez et al., 2002; Rashidi & Khosravi,
2010). Learners with a wide vocabulary can accurately express thoughts on diverse top-
ics (Qian, 2002; Kezhen, 2015). Expanding vocabulary involves understanding word im-
plications, collocations, and word games (Rashidi & Khosravi, 2010).
Developing a wide vocabulary requires extensive practice and morpheme manipula-
tion (Rashidi & Khosravi, 2010). Learners need to comprehend form-meaning connections
and contextual usage (Schmitt, 2014). Morpheme manipulation aids word inference and
relationship identification, improving language proficiency (Harkio & Pietilä, 2016).
Word form. Word form knowledge encompasses understanding the morphological and
orthographic characteristics of words (Hong et al., 2011). Vocabulary breadth involves
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more than mere memorization; it includes knowledge of both written and spoken forms,
surface meanings, and everyday usage (Leonard & Deevy, 2020). A large vocabulary is
beneficial, but comprehension of word forms and their common applications is critical for
reading fluency, spelling precision, and listening comprehension (Kezhen, 2015).
The aspect of structure in morphological awareness is essential in determining word
forms through the addition of prefixes and suffixes to base words, altering their appearance
and indicating grammatical information (Manolitsis et al., 2017). For example, the suffix
«-s» pluralizes nouns, while the prefix «un-» creates antonyms (e. g., «happy» to «unhap-
py»). The acquisition of word form knowledge is influenced by frequency, regularity,
transparency, and exposure to lexical units (Leonard & Deevy, 2020). Technology-en-
hanced and multimodal learning materials, along with explicit and implicit instruction,
feedback, and practice (Chapelle & Sauro, 2017), can aid learners.
Word meaning. Word meaning is crucial in Vocabulary Breadth, encompassing se-
mantic and pragmatic properties like denotations, connotations, collocations, and figura-
tive uses (Eguchi et al., 2022). A deep understanding of word meaning enables precise
communication, comprehension, and interpretation in different contexts (Webb, 2020).
Breaking down words into morphemes aids in understanding their structure and meaning
derivation (Mussar et al., 2020). Morphological analysis identifies how morphemes com-
bine to form the word’s overall meaning and reveals relationships between words with
shared morphemes.
Various factors influence word meaning acquisition, including word frequency, com-
plexity, learners’ prior knowledge, exposure, and motivation (i. s. p. Nation, 2001). Language
educators can promote word meaning knowledge through pedagogical activities like word
maps, semantic gradients, word associations, and semantic clusters (Eguchi et al., 2022).
Providing feedback and encouraging learners to use new words in their communication and
writing further enhances their word meaning knowledge and vocabulary breadth.
Word usage. Word usage, a crucial aspect of Vocabulary Breadth, involves effective
and appropriate use of words in various contexts and genres (Caro & Mendinueta, 2017).
It encompasses knowledge of collocations, idioms, phrasal verbs, and multi-word units,
along with linguistic characteristics like grammar, syntax, discourse, and register (i. s. p.
Nation, 2001).
Morphological analysis and accurate pronunciation of morpho-phonemic correspon-
dences enhance language proficiency, enabling learners to use lexical items effectively in
English (Webb, 2020). This is especially valuable for second language learners facing un-
familiar words and structures. Word usage proficiency can be developed through exposure
to real-world language input, explicit instruction, feedback, practice, and reflection (Zhou
& Dai, 2016). Language teachers can use various techniques like communicative activi-
ties (Loewen & Sato, 2017), task-based learning, and corpus-based analysis to encourage
learners’ word usage and vocabulary diversity.
Vocabulary depth knowledge
Vocabulary depth, a crucial dimension of lexical competence, involves a deep understanding
of a lexical unit, encompassing its meaning, pronunciation, spelling, frequency, and mor-
phological, syntactic, and collocational features (Rashidi & Khosravi, 2010; Qian, 2002).
Learners with a broad vocabulary are aware of all aspects of a word, including its multi-
ple meanings and relationships with other terms in the language, enabling them to use it
accurately in various situations.
Morphological awareness plays a vital role in developing vocabulary depth. Under-
standing word structure and formation helps learners acquire new words and expand their
vocabulary (Rychka & Lisovska, 2022). Familiarity with roots and affixes allows learners
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Morphological awareness for the development of the lexical competence of the English language
to break down words and deduce their meanings, thereby enhancing word comprehension.
To fully increase vocabulary depth knowledge, it is essential to examine phonemic, gra-
phemic, morphemic, syntactic, semantic, and collocational features of lexical units (H.-Y.
Choi, 2013; Qian, 2002). These features can be categorized into two groups (Zareva et
al., 2005): the micro level, which includes phonemic, graphemic, and morphemic features,
and the macro level, covering syntactic, semantic, and collocational features.
Phonemic features. Language learners’ vocabulary depth is significantly influenced by
phonemic elements. The ability to understand spoken language accurately and recognize
word variations like plurals, verb tenses, and word endings, which can dramatically impact
a word’s meaning, depends on the capacity to differentiate between different sounds in
words. Phonological features pertain to the individual sounds and sound characteristics
of words, while lexical features involve the holistic combination of sounds in words and
their resemblance to other words (Farquharson et al., 2014).
Graphemic features. Graphemic elements play a significant role in learners’ acquisition
of a deeper understanding of words, contributing to vocabulary depth. As Venezky (2011)
highlights, there are complexities in the spelling units beyond the basic twenty-six graph-
emes. Learning to detect and decode words using graphemes, the visual representations
of written language, proves beneficial when encountering new terms. Understanding gra-
phemic aspects allows learners to identify spelling patterns, leading to the development of
a larger vocabulary. For example, recognizing common suffixes or prefixes helps students
determine the meaning of novel words, enhancing both depth and breadth of vocabulary
(Cleary, 2014). This knowledge enables learners to swiftly grasp and effectively use new
vocabulary (Spencer et al., 2015), enhancing their comprehension of the reading they
engage in.
Morphemic features. Morphemic characteristics play a fundamental role in vocabulary
depth knowledge, providing the ability to understand the detailed meaning and structure
of words. Morphemes, being the smallest units of meaning in language, allow students to
comprehend more than just the spelling-to-sound relationship; they also aid in identifying
morpheme boundaries (Hurrel, 2019; Venezky, 2011). Understanding the meaning of
prefixes, suffixes, and roots, and how they combine to create new words, is facilitated by
a working knowledge of morphemic characteristics.
Syntactic features. Vocabulary depth knowledge of lexical units is significantly influ-
enced by understanding syntactic features, which govern the arrangement and combina-
tion of words to form sentences (Wu & Juffs, 2022). By grasping how words function
in context and how their meanings can change based on sentence structure, learners can
develop a deeper understanding of syntax and enhance their vocabulary depth knowledge
(Farrow et al., 2020).
Semantic features. The development of vocabulary depth is influenced by the semantic
properties of words, which describe their meaning, category, properties, and relationships
to other words (Robert & Rico Duarte, 2016). Understanding semantic features allows
individuals to communicate ideas more effectively and with greater variety in their writing,
which is especially beneficial for language learners.
Collocational features. Collocations play a crucial role in developing a solid vocabulary
depth knowledge of the English language. They are expressions of words that frequently
occur together and significantly influence the meaning of sentences (Nesselhauf, 2006).
Collocations are characterized by fixedness and commutability, with transparency and
commutability being two key features. Transparency refers to whether the combination’s
elements and the combination itself have a literal or non-literal meaning, while commuta-
bility pertains to whether the substitution of the elements is restricted (Nesselhauf, 2006).
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Vocabulary organization
The systematic storage and representation of words and morphemes in the learner’s brain
through vocabulary organization is a crucial component of English lexical competence.
Some scholars define lexical competence as the organization of lexical units based on the
degree of familiarity (Sevara et al., 2021). Learners with high vocabulary proficiency are
assumed to have dense and more organized networks of words and morphemes, allow-
ing them to quickly locate words and understand word relationships, thus enhancing their
communicative skills (Choudhury, 2015).
Morphology greatly influences the structure of English vocabulary. Morphological
knowledge enables learners to recognize morphemes and understand how they combine
to form new words. This understanding allows learners to systematically classify, and store
words based on their morphological components, leading to more effective and precise
word recall (Schmitt, 2014). For example, knowing the morpheme «-ness» helps learners
grasp the relationship of deadjectival nominalization (e. g., happy-happiness, sad-sadness).
Storage, connection and retrieval. Examining the storage, connection, and retrieval of
lexical items provides a deeper comprehension of vocabulary organization (Chapelle, 1999;
Qian, 2002; Rashidi & Khosravi, 2010). Storage pertains to how words are stored in the
mental lexicon, considering usage frequency, word relationships, and the strength of these
connections (Webb, 2020). Connection refers to the arrangement of words in the mind’s
lexicon, involving associations and relationships (Webb, 2020). Retrieval is the ability to
recall words quickly and accurately from memory (Webb, 2020). Examining these elements
helps researchers understand the intricate network of word and morpheme relationships in
the mental lexicon, influencing vocabulary organization and lexical competence.
Storage. Word storage involves mentally representing and organizing lexical units,
creating semantic networks where words connect based on shared characteristics (Fer-
rer-Xipell, 2020). Relationships among morphological, semantic, and syntactic components
influence this organization (Ferrer-Xipell, 2020). The quantity and accessibility of links
in the semantic network influence the mental lexicon’s arrangement (Holmström et al.,
2016). Word frequency, familiarity, and personal experience impact word organization
and storage. High-frequency words are stored more effectively and accessed faster than
low-frequency words.
Morphological awareness is crucial for word storage as affixes, roots, and stems are
part of a word’s mental representation (Farahian, 2011). Learners aware of morphological
norms can efficiently infer new word meanings and store them (Gabryś-Barker, 2005).
Vocabulary organization differences affect lexical access precision and speed (Pranoto &
Afrilita, 2019). Some rely on holistic storage, while others use an analytical approach,
breaking words down. Individual storage strategies play a role in vocabulary organization.
Connection. To comprehend word connection and its role in vocabulary organization,
semantic networks play a crucial role (Sevara B. et al., 2021). These networks consist of
linked words and ideas in the mind’s vocabulary (Sevara B. et al., 2021). Word associations
are formed based on shared meaning or grammatical characteristics, strengthened through
exposure and use (Ferrer-Xipell, 2020). Students’ cognitive development involves transi-
tioning from simpler syntagmatic associations to more complex paradigmatic connections.
Morphological awareness strengthens word connections in the mental lexicon by
recognizing the morphological structure of words (Gabryś-Barker, 2005). For example,
knowing that «act» denotes action enables understanding words like «action», «actor», and
«react». Recognizing morphological similarities builds a network of related lexical units,
facilitating retrieval and use in spoken and written language (Embick et al., 2021).
Words with similar meanings or frequent use are more tightly connected, enabling
quicker access from the mental lexicon (Choi, 2013). A well-connected vocabulary net-
work allows rapid word access in various contexts, while a poorly linked network may
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Morphological awareness for the development of the lexical competence of the English language
lead to slower retrieval and production. Associations are influenced by usage, similarity,
and frequency (Pranoto & Afrilita, 2019). High-frequency words are strongly associated
with others. The exposure to language and how learners interact with lexical forms and
structures influence word connections in the mental lexicon (Holmström et al., 2016).
The strength of relationships between lexical units and ideas depends on the speaker’s
proficiency in both first and second languages.
Retrieval. Word retrieval involves recalling information from the mental lexicon when
encountering a word (Qian, 2002). To enable retrieval, students activate related terms
in the semantic network, starting with word recognition and followed by retrieval (Ga-
bryś-Barker, 2005). Characteristics such as word frequency, familiarity, and contextual
information can impact retrieval speed and accuracy (Cui, 2009). Phonologically-based
linkages in the mental lexicon can hinder fast word retrieval in natural conversation,
leading to non-native-like vocabulary usage. Restructuring the l2 mental lexicon based on
semantic or conceptual associations is crucial to improve retrieval. Interference from other
words or concepts can also affect retrieval (Navarrete et al., 2014). Multiple meanings of
a word may create interference, slowing down retrieval (Webb, 2020).
Context influences word retrieval. A sentence’s context can activate and recall words
syntactically or semantically related to the target word. Morphological awareness aids in
recalling words with similar structures and meanings (Palmovi & Marii, 2008). Efficient
word retrieval is essential for lexical competence, enabling quick and accurate access to
words in various contexts (Ferrer-Xipell, 2020). Vocabulary instruction with word re-
trieval strategies improves retention and usage (Nation, 2015). Understanding the pro-
cesses and factors influencing word retrieval is vital for effective vocabulary training and
enhancing lexical competence in efl learners.
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The literature review on morphological awareness and English lexical competency pro-
duced numerous significant findings. To begin with, morphological awareness can be ex-
plained through three distinctive aspects: structure, analysis and decoding (Deacon et al.,
2017; Levesque & Deacon, 2022; MacKay et al., 2017). This framework serves for a fun-
damental understanding of the relationship between lexical competence and morpholog-
ical awareness. Besides, the aspects in which this variable has been circumscribed account
for both production (analysis and decoding) and reception (structure and analysis).
Furthermore, Morphological Awareness and English lexical proficiency consistently
showed a good cross-linguistic association in students’ biliteracy (S. (Echo) Ke et al.,
2021). For instance, one study discovered that children who got specific instruction in
morphology fared better than their classmates on vocabulary exams (Brandes & McMaster,
2017). Similarly, a different study by Varga et al. (2020) discovered that morphological
knowledge positively predicted reading comprehension in both English native speakers and
English as a Second Language (esl) students. Second, consciousness of morphemes might
have a stronger impact on word reading in English. According to one study, children who
got education in morphology enhanced their English vocabulary more than older children
who received the same instruction (Levesque et al., 2021). Besides, explicit teaching in
morphemes may help second language learners. A meta-analysis conducted by Ke et al.
(2021) revealed that morphological training increased esl students’ reading comprehension
and vocabulary development.
Although the results were generally encouraging, there were some contradictions
in the literature. For instance, some research discovered that English native speaker’s
morphological awareness outperforms that of non-natives, yet a study conducted on l2
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Díaz C.
learners from a morphologically more complicated l1 unveiled that even with much lesser
ability in the target language, they could exceed native speakers in their understanding of
relational morphology (Wu & Juffs, 2022). Different studies employed different tasks to
test knowledge on word formation knowledge; some used morpheme isolation tasks and
others utilized inflectional tasks (McBride–Chang et al., 2005; Sparks & Deacon, 2015).
The methods employed to measure English lexical proficiency varied as well, with some
research employing vocabulary tests and others using reading comprehension exams.
Morphological analysis and decoding was found to be more strongly associated to middle
school pupils’ reading comprehension than word knowledge in some studies (Deacon et al.,
2017; MacKay et al., 2017). These discrepancies indicate that additional study is required
to fully understand the connection between word structure knowledge and English lexical
competence, taking into consideration various age groups, task kinds, and vocabulary
measures. The results of this research study have major implications for teaching languages.
First, teachers ought to think about include explicit teaching in morpheme conscious-
ness in their curricula (Alsaeedi, 2017; Hurrel, 2019). The link between English lexical
proficiency and morphological analysis is favourable, indicating that education in this area
may improve students’ vocabulary breadth and word reading comprehension abilities (Azad
& Ahmadian, 2021). Second, teachers should be mindful that training along the different
dimensions of morphology may be more beneficial for students. Therefore, while devel-
oping and implementing teaching on morpheme knowledge, greater consideration should
be given to learners (Henry, 2019). Lastly, the results imply that specific morphological
decoding instruction is something that educators should think about doing given the rising
number of esl students in classrooms throughout the world.
There are numerous limitations on the literature review. It is challenging to demon-
strate a causal link between morphological awareness and English lexical proficiency be-
cause many of the research examined were correlational. Further limiting the generalizabil-
ity of the results are some of the studies’ limited sample sizes or concentration on certain
populations. Last but not least, the majority of the studies were carried out in academic
contexts, which might not accurately represent language use in everyday life.
The research review on the relationship between morphological awareness and
English lexical competence concludes by highlighting the significance of knowledge on
morphemes in lexical competence in English and reading overall (Ibrahim Rabadi, 2019;
Spencer et al., 2015). The results imply that morphological structure, analysis, and decod-
ing are crucial skills when it comes to teaching and may increase vocabulary learning and
reading comprehension abilities (Deacon et al., 2017; Levesque & Deacon, 2022; MacKay
et al., 2017). Nonetheless, further research is required to fully comprehend the connection
between morphological awareness and English lexical competence, especially when dif-
ferent age groups, task kinds, and measures of English lexical competence are considered.
CONCLUSIONS
The inclusion of morphological awareness in language teaching can facilitate and hasten
language learning. It is possible to learn and practice morphological analysis techniques to
increase one’s capacity for novel word recognition and analysis, word formation, and vo-
cabulary development. By looking at the structure of unfamiliar lexical units, educators can
also urge children to use their morphological abilities to improve reading comprehension.
efl students can improve their lexical competence and gain a deeper grasp of the subtle-
ties of the English language by means of the development of these skills.
Comprehension of the internal structure of words can greatly increase vocabulary
depth knowledge in a variety of ways. First of all, learners can guess the meaning of ex-
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Morphological awareness for the development of the lexical competence of the English language
pressions they don’t know by studying the internal structure of them. Second, it enables
students to identify and evaluate various word forms, which aids in their deeper and more
accurate apprehension of their meaning and usage. Thirdly, word connections, under-
standing word relationships, and word collocations are all made possible by morphological
awareness. An individual’s vocabulary depth knowledge and language command can be
greatly improved by all of these elements. As a result, learners are better able to detect and
produce a wider variety of words when they have a solid understanding of morphological
structure, which includes rules and patterns for word construction such prefixes, suffixes,
and compounding.
By creating meaningful links and paradigms based on morphological relations, mor-
phological structure also helps students organize their vocabulary. For example, realizing
that «-er» creates nouns denoting «someone who does something» enables the creation of
words like «teacher», «writer», or «driver», while the understanding that «un-» signifies
negation can provide insight into words such as «unhappy», «clear», or «unfair».
Morphological analysis can enhance vocabulary knowledge in a variety of ways. At
first glance, by delving into the inner workings of lexical units, it can aid in identifying
and comprehending less frequent lexical items. They will be able to recognize and com-
prehend words they may not have come across before, broadening their vocabulary in the
process. Inferring the meaning of unfamiliar terms using morphological analysis, instead,
enables students to acquire new expressions more rapidly and with less effort. A deeper
knowledge of word form, meaning, and usage in a variety of contexts is facilitated by this
ability. Learners can infer the meaning of words like «impossible» by breaking them down
into their individual morphemes, «im-», «possible», and «-ble». The fact that «happiness» is
made up of the morphemes «happy» and «-ness» also aids students in understanding that
it refers to «the state of being happy».
For efl learners who have difficulty reading and spelling, morphological decoding can be
especially helpful. It can boost recognition, retrieval effectiveness, discrimination, vocabulary
accuracy, and reading fluency; in turn, this aspect enables students to employ morpholog-
ical hints to determine the pronunciation of unknown words, especially in languages with
complicated spelling as English proves to be. This ability is extremely useful for enhancing
word reading and reading comprehension by making use of the particular phonological and
orthographical features. Understanding the structure of morphologically complex lexical
items helps pupils read more quickly and effectively, discriminate between terms that appear
similar but have distinct meanings, organize and retrieve morphemes more effectively in their
mental lexicon, and recognize and understand lexical units more readily.
According to the analysis presented, it has been proved feasible the relationship be-
tween Morphological Awareness and Lexical Competence of the English language through
a set of aspects (structure, analysis, and decoding) in the case of ma, and dimensions
(vocabulary breadth, depth and organization) for lc. Morphological awareness plays a
vital role in enhancing lexical competence by expanding vocabulary breadth and depth,
improving word recognition, comprehension, and organization, and promoting effective
reading strategies. The acquisition of morphological awareness equips learners with a valu-
able set of skills that unlock the potential for a richer and more nuanced understanding of
the English language.
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DOI:
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pISSN 12631-2840
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kronos.idiomas@uce.edu.ec
REVISTA KRONOS
INSITUTO ACADÉMICO DE IDIOMAS REVISTA KRONOS
UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024, pp. 76-85
Boris Vásconez | Universidad Central del Ecuador (Ecuador)
abstract The aim of this article is to analyze how classroom management influences the acquisition of English language
proficiency at the A2 level through a new academic management methodology. The relevance of the study lies in the
number of students who fail to achieve certification of knowledge and skills through the application of the standardized
A2 Key (KET) exam. The study utilizes a quasi-experimental research methodology involving the inclusion of two dis-
tinct groups: an experimental group and a control group, both of which were selected through a random process. Ad-
ditionally, the Suggestopedia learning method has been used, which requires optimal and continuous communication
between the educator and students. This set of techniques also allows for the implementation of various artistic com-
ponents in the classroom, thus achieving greater interaction and better student performance. The study employs a qua-
si-experimental research methodology with the participation of two randomly selected groups: an experimental group
and a control group. Finally, using a pre and post-test design, the difference in the development of skills achieved in
each group is established, where the results indicate the need for a classroom management model with elements such as
motivation, time management, and physical design.
Key words Motivation, time management, decision making, physical design.
fecha de recepción 30/06/2023 fecha de aprobación 30/08/2023
Influencia de la administración de aula en la adquisición
del inglés con estudiantes EFL A2
resumen El objetivo de este artículo es analizar cómo la administración de aula influye en la adquisición del nivel del
idioma inglés A2 por medio de una nueva metodología de gestión académica. La pertinencia del estudio radica en el
número de estudiantes que no alcanzan la certificación de conocimientos y destrezas a través de la aplicación de la prue-
ba estandarizada A2 Key (KET). La presente investigación está realizada sobre una base constructivista que genera la
reestructuración cognitiva, al integrar conocimientos nuevos y modificar los preexistentes. Asimismo, se ha utilizado el
método de aprendizaje conocido como Suggestopedia, que demanda de una óptima y permanente comunicación entre el
educador y los alumnos. Este conjunto de técnicas permite también la implementación de varios componentes artísticos
en el aula, logrando de este modo mayor interacción y mejor desempeño de los estudiantes. El estudio posee una met-
odología de investigación cuasiexperimental con la participación de dos grupos seleccionados de manera aleatoria: uno
experimental y otro de control. Finalmente, utilizando un diseño de pre y postest se establece la diferencia en el desar-
rollo de destrezas alcanzadas en cada grupo, donde los resultados apuntan a la necesidad de un modelo de gestión de
aula con elementos como motivación, gerencia de tiempo y diseño físico.
palabras clave Motivación, gestión de tiempo, toma de decisiones, diseño físico.
Classroom management influence on English
acquisition in EFL A2 students
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Vásconez B.
INTRODUCTION
Social relationships and learning are integral parts of human development, which require
the development of cognitive abilities as well as emotional capacities. Consequently, aca-
demic results will only be achieved if they are built upon a foundation of personal and af-
fective competencies. It should be considered that individuals will only learn something
if they are willing to acquire that knowledge. According to Herrera (2010), the sociocul-
tural dimension reflects students’ lives and those things that bring them love and laugh-
ter. In other terms, this dimension encompasses the things that matter most to students.
One of the mechanisms to achieve higher levels of interest and increase intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation in students is the implementation of a Classroom Management
model through various elements such as time management, timely decision-making, and
optimizing physical design and environments. Iglesias (2012) suggests that the classroom
management has four intimately related dimensions: physical dimension, functional di-
mension, temporal dimension, and relational dimension.
English language learning is certainly not exempt from the development of a Class-
room Management model. Therefore, the present study aims to determine the degree of
impact that the application of such a management mechanism has on the improvement of
language skills in this language.
The application of classroom management methodologies to enhance educational stan-
dards has been extensively considered in various studies and research, where the relevance
of implementing a classroom management model with different elements is evident. These
elements range from student motivation to the organization of classroom furniture. Free-
man & Freeman (2008) state that when educators use a variety of methods and techniques
to give understandable input and generate an appropriate environment; pupils obtain a
new language in a very similar way they acquired their first language.
The study conducted by Villalobos (2011) in the Ibero-American Journal of Edu-
cation for the Organization of American States for Education, Science, and Culture (oei-
caeu) suggests that designing activities using different strategies and efficiently managing
classroom work to achieve higher levels of learning among students recognizes the role
of the teacher as an agent of change and acknowledges the complexity of teaching and
learning processes.
Similarly, there are several manuals available for consistent classroom management.
One of them was presented in July 2013 by the Dirección General de Currículo del Min-
isterio de Educación de Guatemala. It emphasizes once again the importance of classroom
management aspects, including architectural design and environment decoration. It men-
tions that proper management and a harmonious atmosphere enhance the learning effect.
Regarding English language teaching, studies such as the doctoral thesis by Palenzuela
(2012) can be mentioned. In this study, an Integrated Foreign Language Learning Pro-
gram aims to achieve the a1 level and subsequently progress towards reaching the a2 level.
The objective is to enhance language competencies as a second foreign language.
Rodríguez (2014) mentions the need to investigate the strategies that esl students
employ outside the classroom to improve their English proficiency. Through the findings
of these studies, it is possible to determine the number of students who reach the a2 level
of proficiency.
Therefore, it can be concluded that attempts to optimize classroom management
processes vary depending on each nation, which considers them as a solution to different
educational issues. Thus, it is affirmed that a harmonious context strengthens the develop-
ment of skills, critical thinking, and the formation of values.
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Classroom management influence on English acquisition in EFL A2 students
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Classroom management is a critical aspect of education that focuses on creating an envi-
ronment conducive to effective teaching and learning. To conduct research in this area, it
is necessary to understand the underlying pedagogical principles that inform instructional
practices and student engagement. Good classroom managers are teachers who recognize
and use specific methods and techniques (Oliver & Reschly, 2007).
Constructivism asserts that the world is the result of human relationships, with
the stimuli from nature and society being processed in the mind. Therefore, knowledge
is not generated passively but actively constructed as the individual adapts to the en-
vironment (Vásconez, 2012). Therefore, from the constructivist approach, classroom
management should be understood as a process in which its material and immaterial
elements must be manipulable, dynamic, and useful for students to interact with them
and engage in concrete operations.
Similarly, classroom management allows for the resolution of conflicts that arise
during class in a way that does not cause dissatisfaction or hinder the normal progression
of learning. It is important to understand that conflict is a natural process within human
groups and should be addressed constructively by offering proposals that promote a warm
and welcoming atmosphere, as well as a positive classroom environment that supports the
learning of all students. According to Vaello (2003), conflict can be a wonderful oppor-
tunity to resolve a problem creatively and formatively through the collaborative effort of
the teacher and students, as achieving a satisfactory solution produces gratifying effects
for everyone.
However, to build an appropriate classroom climate, the elements that make up
classroom management must be considered. These include motivation, time management,
decision-making, and physical design, all of which should meet criteria of effectiveness,
simplicity, and variety. Each element should be effective in the sense of preventing prob-
lems, simple to ensure ease of implementation, and varied to provide alternative options
when a strategy does not yield the desired result (Vaello, 2003).
Additionally, it is imperative to free the learner from all negative suggestions
that diminish the true potential of their abilities. To accomplish this, it is necessary to
strengthen the individual’s motivation by using a methodology that helps them to reduce
the affective filter. Herrera & Murry (2015) state Suggestopedia was planned to place as
much language teaching emphasis on learner personality and enthusiasm as that typically
placed on understanding.
According to Richards & Rodgers (2001), the main characteristics of Suggestopedia
include decoration, furniture, music, classroom arrangement, and the primary objective of
quickly achieving advanced conversational proficiency. Therefore, this is the most suitable
method to reach a state of maximum relaxation of the mind, aiming to achieve better
retention of knowledge.
MOTIVATION
Motivating means directing the student’s interest towards meaningful learning, prioritiz-
ing the improvement of their skills over other activities that may distract their attention,
as well as the development of student interest through the creation of a positive emotion-
al climate within the classroom.
Intrinsic motivation is understood as the direct interest that a student has in the sub-
ject, without the need for any external stimulus to foster the desire to learn. This type of
motivation can be achieved through the selection of content to be taught during lessons.
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Vásconez B.
Similarly, extrinsic motivation is defined as any external factor that generates greater inter-
est in the student to acquire new knowledge. There are various ways to awaken this type
of motivation, such as creating diversified evaluation criteria that are not solely based on
the textbook or written exams. Assessment elements such as collaborative groups, inter-
active groups, projects, portfolios, observation, dramatizations, etc., can be used to foster
extrinsic motivation.
According to Kort & Reilly (2001), the new generation of educators should first train
teachers to become experts in recognizing the emotional state of students and based on
their observations, take actions that positively contribute to the educational framework.
The feeling of satisfaction is a crucial factor when determining a student’s academic success
and motivation in the classroom. This will enable the learner to feel pleased with their
academic progress.
The appropriate use of motivation strategies will enable students to achieve autonomy
in their learning process, develop a healthy sense of self-esteem, and be self-critical of their
performance inside and outside the classroom (Pizarro & Josephy, 2010). For example,
to believe that making mistakes is risky when someone is learning a new language or that
boys are not as good as girls in learning a second language (Rubin, 2005). These kinds of
beliefs can significantly affect the learning process.
TIME MANAGEMENT
Effective time management helps individuals increase productivity, reduce stress, and
achieve a better work-life balance. Some common techniques for managing time include
creating to-do lists, setting deadlines, prioritizing tasks, eliminating, or delegating non-es-
sential activities, and practicing good time estimation skills. Indeed, it is essential to have
well-defined and formulated goals for each semester, particularly in higher education (Cas-
tro & López, 2009).
The design of learning units should be elaborated within the context of each aca-
demic period, as each semester has its own characteristics in terms of time distribution.
To achieve this, it is necessary to designate a planning committee within educational
institutions with defined roles for each member. By having a designated committee, the
process of designing learning units can benefit from diverse perspectives, expertise, and
collaboration. This collaborative approach helps to foster objectivity, consistency, and co-
herence in the design of the units, ultimately enhancing the quality of education provided
within the institution.
DECISION-MAKING
When teachers make decisions about their instructional practices, they should consider
the learning needs and goals of their students. This includes selecting appropriate teach-
ing methods, materials, and assessments that align with the desired learning outcomes.
By incorporating a variety of pedagogical strategies, such as active learning, cooperative
learning, and differentiated instruction, teachers can engage students and enhance their
understanding and retention of knowledge.
Teachers serve as guides and coordinators of educational decisions within a group
or classroom setting. They become a point of reference for the children, adolescents, or
young people under their care (Saumell, Alsina & Arroyo, 2011). Overall, the teacher’s
role extends beyond simply imparting knowledge. They have the responsibility to guide,
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Classroom management influence on English acquisition in EFL A2 students
support, and inspire their students, playing a pivotal role in their educational journey and
personal development.
PHYSICAL DESIGN
Upon entering the classroom, it’s important to initiate the lesson in a manner that cap-
tures the students’ attention and encourages their active participation. Whenever feasible
and suitable, we will communicate to the students the tasks ahead or engage in conversa-
tions about the potential outcomes stemming from their upcoming activities.
Therefore, appropriate importance should be given to the distribution of environ-
ments and the architectural design of learning spaces at all levels of education, as they are
fundamental elements for the execution, development, and achievement of educational
purposes. It is also desirable to improve the classroom environment to increase the dispo-
sition of students to learn. When they arrive in the classroom, it is important to start the
lesson in a way that the pupils’ attention is stimulated, and they get engaged with their
own learning (Harmer, 2009).
The workspace should be arranged according to the purposes pursued in each activ-
ity. Additionally, it should ensure that all students have equal opportunities to participate
democratically; likewise, it should contribute to the development of intrapersonal relation-
ships. However, improving the classroom environment is not only the best exploitation
of physical spaces, but also the creation of an ideal atmosphere. Vásconez & Verdezoto
(2007) state that it is relevant to allow students to bring their own stories, anecdotes, and
thoughts into the classroom. This provides them with the opportunities to work together,
to learn from each other, and to respect each other’s differences.
DIDACTIC MATERIALS
A didactic material is a tool that facilitates both the process of teaching and the process of
learning. It is characterized by arousing the student’s interest and sensory memory. The
teacher should provide a varied and stimulating range of materials that offer multiple op-
portunities to manipulate concepts and vocabulary in their working memory. Then the
students will be able to elaborate upon their connections through a balance of illustrations
and words (Herrera, Kavimandan & Holmes, 2011).
In other words, language learners get linguistic structure by experiencing the environ-
mental features, therefore they acquire a language incidentally and not in an intentional
way (Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei & Thurrell, 1997).
For a didactic material to be effective and promote a successful learning situation, it
requires more than just being a good material or the latest technology. It should have ob-
jective quality and be able to capture the students’ interest. The proper selection of possible
ways to use the material will allow the efficient design of learning activities and didactic
methodologies that ensure effectiveness in achieving the intended learning outcomes.
Nation (2001) remarks that task knowledge is very important because learners need to
have sufficient comprehension of what is needed to achieve results. However, it is always
necessary to state feasible objectives to avoid frustration among l2 learners.
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METHODOLOGY
The methodology used for this study was a mixed-methods design because it combines
quantitative and qualitative approaches. Quantitative because it involves the collection of
numerical data, and qualitative because it seeks to understand a social phenomenon. Ac-
cording to the research design, the study is quasi-experimental since English language skills
are complex and cannot be measured solely through a survey, but rather through practice.
Additionally, the study involves two groups that are not randomly selected: an experimen-
tal group and a control group. In the qualitative part, an observation form was conducted,
this form should be framed within the model of the pedagogical-didactic hexagon: objec-
tives, content, methodology, resources, schedule, and evaluation. This instrument was also
validated by three specialists, and it was only applied to the experimental group. In the
quantitative part, the standardized test Cambridge English: Key (Ket) was applied. It is
important to mention that this instrument will be applied as a pre-test at the beginning of
the research in both groups, and similarly as a post-test at the end of the study.
The research question that this study aimed to answer was: How classroom manage-
ment influences in the a2 level (cefr) acquisition of English students?
PARTICIPANTS
The group that participated in the study was made up of sixty-two a2 students who have
approved prior level A1. Students are young adults, age range 18 to 23 years old. All stu-
dents agreed to participate in the project. The sample used throughout the research was a
non-random sample that considers the criteria of the investigator. There were thirty-one
students that belong to the experimental group composed of 9 male students and 22 fe-
male students. The control group also consists of thirty-one students, with 10 being male
and 21 being female. All participants completed the pretest and post-test stages and con-
tributed to the classroom management intervention.
RESULTS
Quantitative results refer to pretest and post-test students’ scores on the standardized test
Cambridge English: Key (Ket). The Ket exam individually assesses each language skill, so
bar graphs have been created, which facilitate the interpretation of the information and
provide comparative data of the two groups in a simple form. The obtained data is dis-
played through graphs for each language skill, as well as an overall graph showing the con-
solidated results of the entire assessment. The total score of the instrument is 100 points,
divided as follows: reading 35 points, writing 25 points, listening 25 points, and speak-
ing 15 points (see Figures 1-5).
DATA ANALYSIS
Once the pre-test and post-test have been administered to the students in the control and
experimental groups, the results are organized and tabulated for subsequent statistical anal-
ysis using frequency distribution, percentages, arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and
variance (see Tables 1, 2).
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Classroom management influence on English acquisition in EFL A2 students
Control group Experimental group
Pre-test 23,29 24,77
Post-test 26,58 27,58
Control group Experimental group
Pre-test 10,45 11,83
Post-test 12,48 16,06
Control group Experimental group
Pre-test 10,25 11
Post-test 13,61 14,64
Control group Experimental group
Pre-test 6,61 6,77
Post-test 7,06 11,09
Control group Experimental group
Pre-test 50,61 54,38
Post-test 59,74 69,38
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Control group Experimental group
Figure 1. Comparative chart of Reading results
Pre-test Post-test
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Control group Experimental group
Figure 2. Comparative chart of Writing results
Pre-test Post-test
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Control group Experimental group
Figure 3. Comparative chart of Listening results
Pre-test Post-test
Figure 1. Comparative chart of Reading results
Figure 3. Comparative chart of Listening results
Figure 5. Comparative chart of overall results
Figure 4. Comparative chart of Speaking results
Figure 2. Comparative chart of Writing results
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Control group Experimental group
Figure 4. Comparative chart of Speaking results
Pre-test Post-test
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Control group Experimental group
Figure 5. Comparative chart of overall results
Pre-test Post-test
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Table 1. Pretest statistical analysis
control group experimental group
Media 50.61 54.38
Variance 172.14 189.71
Standard deviation 13.12 13.77
Table 2. Post-test statistical analysis
control group experimental group
Media 59.74 69.38
Variance 181.45 150.77
Standard deviation 13.47 12.27
Next, critical values and rejection regions are determined, and the calculation of the z-score
is performed to demonstrate the effectiveness of the independent variable. In the context
of statistical hypothesis testing, critical values and regions of rejection are determined ac-
cording to the selected level of significance (typically represented by α). The critical values
are thresholds that determine whether the obtained test statistic falls within the rejection
region or not. When the test statistic lies within the rejection region, the null hypothesis
is discarded in favor of the alternative hypothesis. The z-score serves as a standardized
measure indicating how many standard deviations a given data point or test statistic de-
viates from the mean. The calculation involves subtracting the mean from the observed
value and then dividing the result by the standard deviation. Through this computation
of the z-score, it becomes possible to contrast the observed outcomes of the pre-test and
post-test against the anticipated outcomes as per the null hypothesis. If the z-score falls
within the rejection region, it indicates that the independent variable had a significant ef-
fect on the dependent variable.
In the given context, zt represents the theoretical value of z (-1.96 or 1.96) for a
significance level of 5%, where �� = 0.05. This means that the research will have a 95%
confidence level for a two-tailed test. When the calculated z-score extends beyond the
critical value in either tail of the distribution, the null hypothesis is dismissed in support
of the alternative hypothesis. In this case, the alternative hypothesis would suggest that the
independent variable has a significant effect on the dependent variable.
When comparing the calculated z-value and the theoretical z-value: zC = 2.01 > ZT
= 1.96, it can be observed that zC has a value of 2.01, which falls within the acceptance
region of the alternative hypothesis. This outcome signifies the rejection of the null hypoth-
esis and the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis in the research, indicating a positive
influence (see Figure 6).
DISCUSSION
Once the pre-test was administered to both groups, it was observed that the students had
an insufficient level of proficiency in terms of their language skills. This level of proficien-
cy did not meet the requirements for achieving a passing score on the standardized inter-
national test known as the a2 Key (Ket).
On the other hand, when the methodology was completed and the post-test was
administered, it was evident that both groups had made significant progress in terms of
their language skills. However, only the experimental group managed to reach the passing
84 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Classroom management influence on English acquisition in EFL A2 students
Figure 6. Z-score calculation
average score of seventy points required to obtain certification of proficiency at this level
on the standardized evaluation. They had increased their average score by fifteen points
between the pre-test and the post-test.
Even though the control group showed an increase of just over nine points between
the pre-test and post-test, it remains far from reaching an acceptable average score for the
standardized test. There is a gap of at least ten points separating them from the minimum
score required for certification, with only eight students surpassing this minimum score.
Consequently, the obvious improvement in the control group is attributed to the
teacher’s work throughout the academic period, meanwhile, the accelerated progress
achieved by the experimental group is evidently due to the implementation of the class-
room management process maintained during the experimentation phase.
CONCLUSION
Classroom management could be an inspirational experience, as long as the objectives and
purposes become a concrete reality. However, that is not always true if all the variables
around the learning process are not considered. Aspects like motivation, discipline, and re-
sources, among others, could influence the development of a lesson. Having enough space
and the necessary graphic stimuli within a classroom could even influence the students’
attitude toward the language. The great variety of visual material does not have limits and
it can even be designed by the students. Resources like flip charts, maps, puppets, puzzle
boards, costumes, etc. are precious visual aids that could be created during lessons while
the scholars learn by doing.
According to the findings of statistical analysis, learners’ abilities substantially im-
proved between the pretest and post-test stages. The pretest results showed that students
were not able to obtain the a2 certification. The post-test results confirmed that these
conditions changed positively, and students learned the importance of graphic material,
time management, and physical design. In addition, by means of classroom management
implementation, the number of students passing the a2 level increases by 22.5%.
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Vaello, J. (2003). Resolución de conflictos en el aula. Santillana Educación.
Vásconez, B. E. (2012). Guía didáctica para mejorar las destrezas productivas del idioma inglés
dirigida a los cadetes de segundo curso de la Escuela Superior Militar Eloy Alfaro. Univer-
sidad Tecnológica América, Quito, Ecuador.
Vásconez, B. E., & Verdezoto, J. E. (2007). The incidence of the English Language Learning
on the Ecuadorian Cultural Educational Context at Manuel Abad High School, 10th year
of Basic Education, School Year 2006-2007. Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas-espe,
Quito, Ecuador.
Villalobos, X. (2011). Reflexión en torno a la gestión de aula y a la mejora en los procesos de
enseñanza y aprendizajes. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación.
DOI:
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© 2023 Universidad Central del Ecuador
pISSN 12631-2840
eISSN 2631-2859
kronos.idiomas@uce.edu.ec
REVISTA KRONOS
INSITUTO ACADÉMICO DE IDIOMAS REVISTA KRONOS
UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024, pp. 86-94
Evelyn Almeida | Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE (Ecuador)
Universidad Central del Ecuador (Ecuador)
Andrea Rosero | Universidad Central del Ecuador (Ecuador)
abstract This research study is an action research project carried out by two EFL teachers and a group of ten universi-
ty students who have taken English as a requirement in college. This project aimed to promote participation, accuracy,
and fluency in speaking ESL students. The researchers used four strategies: Collaborative Group Work, Input Strate-
gy, Interactive Activities, and Corrective Feedback in a seven-week course. In the end, students showed more confi-
dence and fluency when expressing their opinions and feelings as well as sharing their comments with their classmates
while interacting in class. The researchers also observed that they reduced their pronunciation mistakes when talking
about specific topics.
Key words Speaking, action research, collaborative work, input strategy, corrective feedback.
fecha de recepción 08/06/2023 fecha de aprobación 22/08/2023
Investigación-acción: motivando la expresión oral en estudiantes universitarios de inglés
como lengua extranjera
resumen Este estudio es un proyecto de investigación de acción realizado por dos maestros de inglés como idioma
extranjero y un grupo de diez estudiantes universitarios que han tomado inglés como requisito en la universidad. Este
proyecto tiene como objetivo promover la participación, precisión y fluidez al hablar inglés. Se usó cuatro estrategias:
trabajo grupal colaborativo, estrategia de entrada, actividades interactivas y retroalimentación correctiva en un curso de
siete semanas. Al final, los estudiantes mostraron más confianza y fluidez para expresar sus opiniones y sentimientos y
compartir sus comentarios con sus compañeros de clase. También se observó una disminución en sus errores de pro-
nunciación al hablar sobre temas específicos.
palabras clave Producción oral, investigación acción, trabajo colaborativo, estrategia de entrada, retroalimentación co-
rrectiva.
Action research: promoting speaking in EFL College students
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Almeida E., Rosero A.
INTRODUCTION
As English as Foreign Language (efl) teachers, the professors-researchers had the oppor-
tunity to work with a group of 10 university students after a short oral diagnostic assess-
ment inside the classroom. The teachers could see that most of the learners had difficulty
with speaking skills. All of them were at the A1.2 level according to the Common Europe-
an Framework of Reference (cefr), which means that students can understand sentences
and frequently used expressions related to fundamental personal and family information,
shopping, location, and food. Learners also manage to communicate in simple and routine
tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine mat-
ters. Students can describe in simple terms aspects of their background (Council of Eu-
rope, 2001).
Concerning their speaking ability, students can interact simply and directly. They can
exchange information with difficulty where they must repeat or rephrase words or phrases
and speak at a slow rate with some accuracy (Council of Europe, 2001).
The group of students, the researchers worked with, struggled the most with speaking
skills. Researchers found three significant weaknesses: fluency, shyness, and accuracy. After
a short interview with the students, they mentioned that other subskills or aspects than
learning grammar and vocabulary to be competent in the target language were needed.
Students felt that they needed to practice speaking to communicate. They mentioned that
after acquiring this skill, they would feel encouraged to learn more every day and be able
to use English for life. It means to have English in their long-term memories. So, after this
action research project, the teachers-researchers feel proud of their accomplishments with
the group they worked with.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The main research question is how to improve speaking skills in efl learner. The sub ques-
tions are:
a. How to promote participation in speaking activities in a foreign language learner?
b. How to promote accuracy in speaking in a foreign language learner?
c. How to promote fluency in speaking in a foreign language learner?
METHODOLOGY
Action research is a methodology that includes a learning cycle emphasizing logical reflec-
tion so that students can effectively learn. As Stringer (2013) mentions, action research
is a participative methodology that helps to develop an understanding between teachers
and students. For this research project, the teachers used action research as the method-
ology because it studies a social situation, in our case, a classroom problem, with the view
to improving students speaking skills. They decided to use this methodology because it
is a flexible approach that helps teachers look for solutions to their everyday classroom
problems. Additionally, working directly with their students encourages researchers to
be aware of what they are doing, how they are doing it, and how they can improve. This
flexible methodology helps teachers and students. In the first stage, the teachers-research-
ers used a diagnostic test and an interview to collect data. After using the strategies, they
used an observation checklist and a speaking rubric to assess the activities performed by
88 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Action research: promoting speaking in EFL College students
the students. After assessing the students using the different strategies, teachers analyzed
the information provided by students and made an improvement plan to be applied in the
next academic period.
iv. DISCUSSION
To improve students speaking skills in English, the researchers sed four types of strategies
with different activities. These strategies were used to foster oral communication consid-
ering our students’ weaknesses. Students needed to speak English more fluently, accurate-
ly, and confidently.
1. STRATEGY ONE: COLLABORATIVE GROUP WORK
Collaborative group work is a teaching strategy that offers a supportive and secure learn-
ing environment where students can become active participants. They learn cooperative
working, respecting each other, their ideas, and their weaknesses (Gödek, 2004). In this
action research study, the teachers used collaborative group work to promote participa-
tion and fluency in the students. Learners were asked to get together in pairs or groups
of three. The task was to create a recipe and make an oral presentation, including ingre-
dients, steps, and the final recipe. For this activity, the researchers already introduced new
vocabulary and expressions using mind maps and input charts. Additionally, they mod-
eled some examples of recipes.
The main activity in this strategy was jigsaw groups with a minor modification. Each
group became an expert on each recipe. As each group had a different recipe. The stu-
dents did not regroup; however, they had to present their own recipes to the whole class.
Students became experts on their recipes, had to report on how to prepare a typical dish
from different parts of Ecuador, presented to the class and answered questions from the
professors and their classmates. Teachers used some techniques suggested by Gibbons
(2015) to make group work effective: Clear and explicit instructions were provided as in
the aspects described below.
a. Talk was necessary for the task.
b. There was a clear outcome for the group work.
c. The task was cognitively appropriate to the learners.
d. The task was integrated with a broader curriculum topic.
e. All students in the group were involved.
f. Students had enough time to complete the task.
To evaluate this strategy with the students an observation check list was developed as
shown in table (see Table 1).
Students’ response
Students were enthusiastic about working together to create a recipe they liked eating or
enjoyed making. They spent some time trying to choose the perfect recipe. Students shared
information about ingredients, quantities, recipients, measurements, and ways of cooking.
They also debated the correct way of preparing the recipes. It was interesting to see that
89REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Almeida E., Rosero A.
each student had their own way of making things depending on where they lived and the
food type they ate.
Students could create their own recipes with poster papers, markers, and magazine
pictures. They finally presented each recipe, and the teachers and the rest of the class asked
questions about it. They thought it was a fun activity for everyone, and the most relevant
task, while students had the opportunity to participate in the oral presentation and practice
English (see Figure 1).
2. STRATEGY TWO: INPUT STRATEGY
The teachers-researchers’ input was an input chart (see Figure 2) related to restaurants
and menus to improve participation and accuracy. With the information provided in the
input chart, students were required to talk about their favorite restaurant. They also had
to use word cards to recycle information and practice using the vocabulary and expres-
sions related to the «at the restaurant» input chart.
Learners were also encouraged to talk and connect with what they acquired in class
and heard from their classmates by using talK moves. Chapin, O’Connor, and Anderson
(2003) stated that there are five productive talk moves:
1. Revoicing: So, you are saying that …
2. Asking students to restate one else’s reasoning: What you repeat what he just said in your
own words?
3. Asking students to apply their own reasoning to some else’s reasoning: Do you agree or disa-
gree and why?
4. Prompting students for further participation: Would someone like to add one?
5. Using wait time: Take your tie… we’ll wait.
Table 1. Observation checklist
n.º parameters yes no not observed
1 Students have enthusiasm to participate in discussion
2 Students can pronounce English well
3 Students can identify new vocabularies and use a lot of
vocabularies when they speak English
4 Students become active in the classroom
5 Students ask and answer the question bravely
6 Students respond to talk moves
7 Students ask and answer the question bravely
8 Students work in group
9 Students participate actively in the group
10 Students speak accurately
11 Students complete the task
12 Students can be confident to speak in front of class
Adapted from Gödek, Y. (2004). Research on group Work and Collaborative Work and its Implications for
primary School teachers.
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Action research: promoting speaking in EFL College students
Figure 1. Students group presentations
Figure 2. Input chart
Data: Students presentations about different menus.
Chart data: restaurant vocabulary and menu.
In this action research study, the teachers asked: What did your partner say? Who can re-
phrase what ____ said? Why do you think that? How did you arrive at that conclusion?
were approached in class. As the project for that week, students had to role-play a restau-
rant event, in which they had to include the information provided in the input chart they
had been working on for several weeks. A speaking rubric was used to grade this activity,
as shown in table (see Table 2).
Students’ response
With these activities, students could practice pronunciation and accuracy, using the vocab-
ulary and expressions related to restaurants. Learns enjoy this activity because they can
use authentic material and for a real purpose, which was to communicate in a restaurant.
The students usually go to restaurants; therefore, vocabulary, expressions, and conversa-
tions were beneficial to them. Additionally, all the learners in the class had the opportunity
to interact and become familiar with the topic and discussion. Talk moves were a conve-
nient tool to develop participation among the students. Their final task was to role-play
a restaurant situation where students performed an excellent job using and recycling the
vocabulary, expressions, and structures used in class.
3. STRATEGY THREE: INTERACTIVE ACTIVITIES
Different interactive activities were used in class to promote speaking among the students.
Learners could express their feelings, emotions, and opinions in groups and in front of the
91REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Almeida E., Rosero A.
whole class. One of the activities used in class was donut circles to promote fluency and
participation. The participants gather in two circles. The outer circle faces inward, and
the inner circle faces outward, so each student faces someone in front of the other circle.
The pairs talk in turns to each other for a minute or two about a specific topic (Gibbons,
2015). Each pair of learners was asked to discuss a particular question: What is your fa-
vorite food? Where do you like to go when you eat out? Which is your favorite restaurant?
For this strategy students had the opportunity to interact with their peers in the target lan-
guage, take turns and speak freely and fluently.
Table 2. Speaking rubric
4. Distinguished 3. Proficient 2. Apprentice 1. Novice
Fluency:
Clarity
and
volume.
Appropriate
volume throughout
presentation.Varied
volume when
appropiate. Proper
inflection throughout
presentation.
Spoke clearly and
understandably.
Spoke at an
appropriate
volume for most
of presentation.
Good inflection
and enunciation.
Occasionally
sounded monotone.
Spoke quietly.
Increased volume
briefly after being
asked. Spoke with
little inflection.
Barely audible,
even after requests
to speak up.
No inflection.
Sounded bored
or uninterested.
Paid little attention
to proper
pronunctiation.
accuracy:
Related
to topic,
detailed,and
accurate.
All content direclty
related to topic.
Content was throughly
developed and
demonstrated detailed
knowledge of the
topic. Options were
supported by fact
wherever possible.
Content directly
related to topic.
Included many
details that
demonstrated
knowledge of the
topic. Most opinions
were supported by
facts.
Hardly difficulty
explaining how
the content and
topic relate. Many
opinions were not
factually supported.
Presentation did
not relate to topic.
Included few details
and relied heavily
upon unsupported
opinion.
Vocabulary:
Relevant to the
topic
Entire presentation
focused on the topic.
Able to answer
audience questions
without straying from
subject.
Majority of
presentation was on-
topic. Made effort to
return to topic when
presentation or
audience questions
strayed.
Some material was
unrelated to the
topic, or presenter
used unrelated
material to pad the
presentation.
More than half of
the presentation did
not direclty address
the topic.
Oral
Presentation-
Pauses: Pauses to
collect thoughts
or organize
materials.
Used pauses to
emphasize points
or to elicit audience
response. Did not need
to pause to shuffle
papers, organize
materials or gather
thoughts.
Did not pause for
more than a couple
of seconds to adjust
notes or materials.
Pauses between
sentences and topics
were occasional and
very brief.
Paused one or
more times to
find place in
presentation or
to look through
notes. Paused two
or more times to
gather thoughts
while speaking.
Repeatedly stopped
to look through
notes. Paused
repeatedly to form
sentences.
Adapted from rubric-maker.com (2019).
92 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Action research: promoting speaking in EFL College students
Students’ response
Interactive activities in the class develop intrinsic motivation in students. This activity «al-
lows for practice and rehearsal of an idea or a sentence structure since the student can re-
peat the same thing to each of the new partners as the circle moves on. It allows for peer
scaffolding». Gibbons, 2015, p. 67). Students repeatedly practiced questions and answers
until, at one point, they were fluent and accurate when speaking about specific topics relat-
ed to restaurants and food choices. Finally, they were aware of their improvement, which
was their intrinsic motivation (see Figures 3, 4).
4. STRATEGY FOUR: CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK
Corrective feedback is one of the options for improving accuracy in ESL students. Teach-
ers-researchers used recasting as a way of corrective feedback to help students develop
their accuracy in speaking. «Recasts involve the teacher’s implicit provision of a correct
reformulation of all or part of a student’s ill-formed utterance» (Lyster & Ranta, 1997, p.
46). Using recast, the teachers can correct grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation mistakes
only when necessary, trying not to affect the students’ confidence in speaking English. Re-
cast was very casual by correctly rephrasing words, words, or phrases. It is imperative to
mention that recasting was carried out in class in several instances and with all the stu-
dents during the entire course. For this strategy to be evaluated, a Can-do checklist was
used (see Table 3).
Students’ response
Students respond to corrective feedback positively. They corrected their mistakes when
they noticed them with the help of the teachers by using recasting. As Scrivener (2005)
stated, «If the objective is accuracy, then an immediate correction is likely to be useful; if
the aim is fluency, then lengthy, immediate correction that divers from the flow of speak-
ing is less appropriate» (as cited in Ellis & Shintani, 2014, p. 251). Students corrected
themselves on multiple occasions with the help of recast. Teachers rephrased the words,
expressions, or sentences that needed correction, and then students repeated them cor-
rectly. Corrective feedback is an ongoing process, and not because the instructors correct
it once, students will automatically remember it again. Teachers had to repeatedly correct
the same error until students no longer made the same mistakes.
CONCLUSIONS
By carrying out this action research project, the teachers-researchers learned that the best
ways of learning are by combining several strategies. This action research project used col-
laborative group work and interactive activities, working with input strategies, talk moves,
and appropriate feedback. Students had more opportunities to interact with other speakers,
so they increased their use of the English language. Another benefit was that the learners
improved their English language comprehension because they could ask, answer, clarify,
and exchange information to accomplish their tasks. In addition, as Gibbons (2015) says,
«Learners who are not confident in English often feel more comfortable working with peers
than performing in a whole-class situation» (p. 50). The teachers-researchers believe this
is one of the strengths of this study because, in the process, students helped and support-
ed each other to complete the task and improve their English language.
93REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Almeida E., Rosero A.
Table 3. Oral examination
n.º question corresponding «can do» statement yes/no observations
1 What’s your name? How do
you spell your surname?
I can spell my name
2 Where are you from? I can say countries and nationalities.
3 Did you learn English at
school? For how many years?
I can talk about things that
happened in my life.
4 What do you do now? Do you
work or are you a student?
I can talk about jobs.
5 What do you do in your free
time?
I can talk about my free-time
activities and say when I do them.
6 Do you like football? What
sports do you like?
I can say what I like and don’t like
7 What do you do every day?
What time do you get up/start
work?
I can describe my daily routine.
8 What subjects did you study at
school? What exams did you
take?
I can talk about exams and studying.
9 Tell me something you
could do well at school. And
something you can do well
now
I can talk about things I can do in
the present and could do in the past.
10 Tell me about your favorite
food
I can talk about food and describe
what I like and what I don’t
11 Tell me about the weather in
your country.
I can talk about the weather.
Adapted from Cambridge University press, face2face (2013).
Figure 3. Flash cards
Figure 4. Donut circle
94 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Action research: promoting speaking in EFL College students
As Ellis & Shintani (2014) mentioned, «group-work is a means of increasing students’
participation and self-reliance in the classroom» (p. 22) because there are more oppor-
tunities for language practice, there is a range of language functions, and learners are en-
gaged in self- corrections. Additionally, students can negotiate meaning, which is one of
the most crucial communication skills. In this regard, it was evident that students im-
proved their speaking skills. In the last activities students performed in class, they were
more confident when expressing their opinions and feelings. Additionally, they are not as
shy as they used to be, they are not afraid of speaking or making mistakes either. They
also speak more fluently and accurately at beginning level. However, students must con-
tinue practicing becoming even more fluent in English. Finally, this action research study
helps teachers identify our students’ weaknesses and understand their needs so that teach-
ers can work with them to develop their speaking language skills.
REFERENCES
Cambridge University Press (2013). Face2face oral placement test. Retrieved October 29,
2020 from https://vdocuments.mx/oral-placement-test-cambridge-university-press-
2013-face2face-oral-placement.html
Chapin, S. H., O’Connor, C., & Anderson, N. C. (2003). Classroom discussions using math
talk in elementary classrooms. Math Solutions, 11.
Council of Europe. Council for Cultural Co-operation. Education Committee. Modern
Languages Division. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages:
Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, R., & Shintani, N. (2014). Exploring language pedagogy through second language acqui-
sition research. Routledge.
Gibbons, P. (2015). Scaffolding language, scaffolding learning: Teaching English language
learners in the mainstream classroom (2nd ed.). Heinemann.
Gödek, Y. (2004). Research on group Work and Collaborative Work and its Implications
for primary School teachers. Gazi Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültes, 5(2), 27-34.
Khosidah, I. W. (2017). Improving Students’ Speaking Skill through Focus Group Discus-
sion (fgd) Technique (A Classroom Action Research for the Second Grade Students
of smpn 2 mertoyudan in the Academic Year of 2017/2018) (Doctoral dissertation,
iain salatiga).
Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in
communicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 37-66.
Michaels, S., & O’Connor, C. (2012). Talk Science Primer. terc.
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2013). Focus on form through collaborative dialogue: Exploring task
effects. In Researching pedagogic tasks (pp.109-128). Routledge.
Tech4Learning, Inc. (2019), Rubric maker. Retrieved October 26, 2019, from: https://
rubric-maker.com/
DOI:
CC BY-NC 4.0 —Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional
© 2023 Universidad Central del Ecuador
pISSN 12631-2840
eISSN 2631-2859
kronos.idiomas@uce.edu.ec
REVISTA KRONOS
INSITUTO ACADÉMICO DE IDIOMAS REVISTA KRONOS
UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024, pp. 95-102
Jorge Quijano De la Rosa | Universidad Central del Ecuador (Ecuador)
Preparing for AI involves ensuring that all citizens are prepared for the possible impacts of AI on their lives, helping them to go beyond the hype
in order to understand issues such as AI ethics, data biases, surveillance, and the potential impact on jobs.
Holmes et al. (2022).
abstract This paper discusses the rise of AI in language teaching and its impact on the teaching of English as a foreign
language in Ecuador. The author shares his experience as an EFL teacher in an international graduate program and
highlights the importance of critical thinking and higher order thinking in language learning. The use of AI, particularly
ChatGPT, in the classroom is explored, as well as potential benefits and limitations. It also creates an insightful explora-
tion through technical concepts that entail the meaning of a generative AI and its ramifications until today. The author
emphasizes the need for well-trained teachers who can adapt and innovate with technology to provide meaningful learn-
ing experiences for students. The author explores in depth how teaching English in Ecuador has presented constraints
to overcome in order to accomplish a well understanding of how it is actually learnt by the citizens and how AI could
aid that task. The paper raises questions about the future of education and the role of teachers in an AI-driven world. It
concludes by highlighting the potential of AI to dramatically enhance teaching and learning experiences, but also high-
lights the importance of using AI tools effectively and ensuring that they align with student needs and course objectives.
The paper highlights that AI can make teaching more efficient and effective, but Teachers are not interchangeable. The
use of AI in language education is still in its infancy in Ecuador, but promising initiatives are being developed, with the
potential to equalize all students and improve the quality of education.
Key words AI in language education, English as a foreign language, Ecuador, ChatGPT, teaching English, Critical thinking
skills, higher-order thinking skills, EFL teacher.
fecha de recepción 08/06/2023 fecha de aprobación 22/08/2023
El auge de la IA en la educación de idiomas: un punto de inflexión para la enseñanza de
inglés como lengua extranjera en Ecuador
resumen Este artículo analiza el auge de la IA en la enseñanza de idiomas y su impacto en la enseñanza del inglés como
lengua extranjera en Ecuador. El autor comparte su experiencia como profesor de inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL)
en un programa de bachillerato internacional y destaca la importancia del pensamiento crítico y el pensamiento de or-
den superior en el aprendizaje de idiomas. Se explora el uso de la IA, en particular ChatGPT, en el aula, así como sus
posibles beneficios y limitaciones. También se realiza una exploración perspicaz a través de conceptos técnicos que im-
plican el significado de la IA generativa y sus ramificaciones hasta hoy. El autor enfatiza la necesidad de profesores bien
formados que puedan adaptarse e innovar con la tecnología para brindar experiencias de aprendizaje significativas a los
estudiantes. El autor explora en profundidad cómo la enseñanza del inglés en Ecuador ha presentado restricciones que
superar para lograr una buena comprensión de cómo lo aprenden realmente los ciudadanos y cómo la IA podría ayu-
dar en esa tarea. El artículo plantea preguntas sobre el futuro de la educación y el papel de los profesores en un mundo
impulsado por la IA. Concluye destacando el potencial de la IA para mejorar drásticamente las experiencias de enseñan-
za y aprendizaje, pero también destaca la importancia de utilizar las herramientas de IA de manera eficaz y garantizar
que se alineen con las necesidades de los estudiantes y los objetivos del curso. El artículo destaca que la IA puede hac-
er que la enseñanza sea más eficiente y efectiva, pero los profesores no son intercambiables. El uso de la IA en la edu-
cación lingüística aún se encuentra en sus inicios en Ecuador, pero se están desarrollando iniciativas prometedoras, con
el potencial de igualar a todos los estudiantes y mejorar la calidad de la educación.
palabras clave ia en la educación de idiomas, inglés como lengua extranjera, Ecuador, Chatgpt, enseñanza del inglés,
pensamiento crítico, habilidades superiores de pensamiento, docentes efl
The rise of AI in language education: a game changer for teach-
ing English as a foreign language in Ecuador
96 REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
The rise of AI in language education: a game changer for teaching English as a foreign language in Ecuador
INTRODUCTION
As educators, we certainly knew almost nothing on ai and its uses for our field, neverthe-
less, its blowing appearance in our daily contexts has undoubtably modified our percep-
tion of this now-living scenario. Now, our task seems to be addressed to explore and get as
much information as possible about it, but it is not an easy business; there are constraints
that we must take into account like inclusiveness, personalization, flexibility, and engage-
ment (Schmidt & Strassner, 2022). As many others related to our local situations and how
efl is studied and taught. Let me show you then, my perception and experience, as my find-
ings using these newbie functions for teaching English as a foreign language in Ecuador.
TEACHING efl/esl AS A HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER IN ECUADOR
First, it is paramount to delineate my professional experience as a high school English
teacher and lately discuss how that experience is contrasted with Ecuador’s reality in the
educational field, specifically for esl and efl teaching.
My career as an efl/esl teacher was focused on teaching English for the international
baccalaureate program. The subject was English b Higher Level. This subject entails more
than a traditional transmission of knowledge about grammar, and the famous four skills
that every language learner must acquire in order to be a competent user of it (The Euro-
pean Council, 2023). In consequence, it works with those skills to transform the content
delivery into a context where each individual produces the language to a major extent in-
teracting with its peers and showing critical thinking, reflecting, and higher-order thinking
capacities in the l2 (Dp-Language-B-Guide, 2020).
Let me set you into a deeper understanding of how this subject works and lately
share the importance it had for my profession to know the huge incoming impact that the
appearance of ai’s had in the early stages of 2023.
First of all, it is needed to establish that according to (Dp-Language-B-Guide, 2020),
«The Diploma Programme is a rigorous pre-university course of study designed for stu-
dents in the 16 to 19 age range. It is a broad-based two-year course that aims to encourage
students to be knowledgeable and inquiring, but also caring and compassionate». It means
that the nature of the course is broadly based on a different basis if it is compared to the
traditional language acquisition set ups where aspects like grammar, and vocabulary are the
cores of teaching and thus, the objective for obtaining an international certification from
Cambridge, The British Council, and so on. In consequence, it is also stated that «Language
ab initio and language B are language acquisition courses designed to provide students
with the necessary skills and intercultural understanding to enable them to communicate
successfully in an environment where the language studied is spoken» (Dp-Language-B-
Guide, 2020, p. 16).
After the previous introduction to the subject as the matter of experience for this
article, it is highly important to state that this component of the ib curriculum, also has
a collection of approaches to teaching and learning that are the basis of the course itself.
Among them, and as (Dp-Language-B-Guide, 2020), states, we may find the upcoming list:
1. Empower teachers as teachers of learners as well as teachers of content.
2. Empower teachers to create clearer strategies for facilitating learning experiences in
which students are more meaningfully engaged in structured inquiry and greater
critical and creative thinking.
3. Promote both the aims of individual subjects (making them more than course aspira-
tions) and linking previously isolated knowledge (concurrency of learning)
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4. Encourage students to develop an explicit variety of skills that will equip them to con-
tinue to be actively engaged in learning after they leave school, and to help them not
only obtain university admission through better grades but also prepare for success
during tertiary education and beyond.
5. Enhance further the coherence and relevance of the students’ Diploma Programme
experience.
6. Allow schools to identify the distinctive nature of an ib Diploma Programme education,
with its blend of idealism and practicality (p. 14).
These approaches are meant to highlight the learner as the center of the teaching-learn-
ing process and as a former instructor for this subject, I consider that it is paramount to
be clear that not all the routines and repetitive actions that come from the traditional way
an English teacher uses for its classes, actually, work. We have to imagine this class a mo-
ment for reflection over the content that is delivered and ask the learners to produce their
thoughts using the l2. They may dive into interesting themes like identities, social orga-
nization, human ingenuity, sharing the planet, and experiences (Philpot, 2018) and also
complementing them with even more sources of information like the ones found in Mc-
Gowan, M., Owen Jung, H., & Deupree, A. (2019), Janning, P., & Mertin, P. (2019), Saa’d
Aldin, K. & Morley, K. (2018). Furthermore, add these themes with different text-types
as they learn how to write extensively. This may include how to prepare and write essays,
news reports, letters (informal and formal), brochures, proposals, reviews, blogs, social
media posts, and almost everything they may find nowadays (Owen, 2020).
On the other hand, keeping up with a content-driven class might become difficult to
grasp and imagine, the challenge was to think out of the box and face different procedures
to convey a communicative content which function could delineate a better outcome in
the students’ language performance. In this section, I must agree that as an efl or esl
teacher, your cognitive knowledge, must be rich and understand a variety of voluble
situations in the classroom that require your resourceful approach to solve them instead
of repeating routines, actions, and moreover, traditional views on teaching and learning
(Al-Seghayer, 2017).
These kinds of classes work with a dynamic that is mostly understood as conver-
sational and seek different ways of thinking from the learners’ perspectives. Not all of
them are developed using a proper and adequate level of English. According to the (Dp-
Language-B-Guide, 2020), the optimal management of the language considering the cefr
for languages is b1 or b2, therefore, it is also another aspect to take into account when all
the content comes to the moment of being studied and comprehended. According to De
Angelis (2022), this aspect is an important paradigm that as English teachers we must
know because in Ecuador, it is nationally spread the idea that most of the population has
a low level of English (El Universo, 2019). And recalling my experience teaching this
demanding subject, I agree on that claim. Nevertheless, it is also remarkable to position in
our minds, that Ecuador has had a constant evolving process in this field and contrary to
ef education first (2021a), the company that publishes these studies yearly; our country
responds to a better qualification, however, the core of the methodological process which
is used to measure this data, seems to be biased as De Angelis (2022) assures promoting
that ef education first (2021a), is not taking into account many other factors that are
more linked to our reality. De Angelis (2022) mentions «…the ef epi does not distinguish
between a total lack of language skill in English, the ability to use some basic expressions
in the language, and the ability to adequately communicate about concrete topics in En-
glish, since all of these would appear as ‘very low proficiency’. It is worth noting that the
distinctions between pre-a1, a1, and a2 can be very significant in contexts like Ecuador».
In the end, my position as an educator on this field, takes these last claims as truth, but
conditioned for another reality that in the classrooms all over the country happens, and
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The rise of AI in language education: a game changer for teaching English as a foreign language in Ecuador
that is that our students scarcely handle the language to a significant extent, and it brings
the need to make a huge difference in the instructional methods we use as efl/esl teachers.
Around this aspect, the ai created the first step for this change.
CHATgpt AND THE APPEARANCE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE
EDUCATIONAL FIELD
This concept of ai appeared through a now well-known name, chatgpt. This name sound-
ed harder when we started to know that it could handle different tasks using responsive
human language based on prompts that the user could write easily asking for a text, chart,
table, information, or a simple conversation and lately obtain an answer that was mostly
well-driven and logically created. Students noticed it too and their work production up-
graded in terms of readability, coherence, logical constructions, etc. This was something
to be worried about, but mostly a shocking reality that none was prepared to face or even
understand.
On the course of actions, it was necessary to comprehend first that ai was much more
than chatgpt, it was a complex language structure that engineered constructions like learn-
er-facing AI tools, teacher-facing systems, and system-facing ai tools (Schmidt & Strassner,
2022). Nonetheless, keeping up with the mentioned concepts is yet a constraint to depict
and beat in the long term, thus it creates the need to contrast what we perceive as plausible
using ai in the educational context and what could not be done.
One of the main understandings about ai in the educational practice, is its urgency
for the users (students, teachers, and stakeholders). According to (Cardona et al., n. d.),
teachers are suggested to use ai for many different situations which aim to save time,
reduce workload, help students, and furtherly, provide feedback for those in need. This
situation is agreed by (Schmidt & Strassner, 2022), whose concept of ai implementation
relies on three relevant pillars, adaptivity, assistance, and dynamism. Consequently, if we
take into account that this new technology is shaping notably the way in which we attend
to classes, it is not a surprise that our path as educators is now changing, and we must
strive for creating new ways to implement ai in the near future and lastly innovate our
lessons, test, materials, and authentic production for learners of efl.
Besides all the knowledge you consider you have learned about ai and its function-
alities; it is riveting to depict and review what is it and how we may use it properly as a
result of our previous educational knowledge. Therefore, glance the map below about AI
and its definitions as (Regona et al., 2022) share (see Figure 1).
Grasping from the map presented, Artificial Intelligence appears to be more than
what we appreciate at the first sight. It shows a wide range of possibilities for educators
and students. One of those relies in the framework of automated planning and scheduling
saving many hours a day, mainly by adjusting a content given instead of creating it from
scratch. Online tools like chatgpt and Bard ai are magnificent on this task, however, they
require from you a correct language presentation as they understand input delivered using
texts or what we actually call, prompts. The very prompts that may enlighten you with
more knowledge or lead you to confusion. It all depends on how you as the user may write
properly and clearly. As an example, you may ask to a generative ai like chatgpt or Bard ai
to write a lesson plan. If your prompt is just ‘write a lesson plan’, then your outcome giv-
en will be any lesson plan that the ai may grasp from its database, otherwise, if you write
something more detailed like ‘write a lesson plan for teaching comparatives to a group of
twenty students whose age goes from 10 to 12 years old and their language skills stand
for an a2 level according to the cefr’, you will for sure obtain a meaningful result. These
essays are based on natural language processing and machine learning.
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On this basis, teaching efl is also a matter of understanding that generative ais are not the
solution for everything we are meant to do in our job as educators. Those might provide
us with different and varied results, texts, charts, plans, evaluations, etc. Nevertheless, it is
our duty to decode what is correct and what is not. Cardona et al. (n. d.) states that these
software solutions do not have the needed ‘common sense’ and neither the same judge-
ment that as humans we possess. Consequently, relying on them blindly is undoubtedly an
error that will also prevent us from academic creation which will meaningfully help stu-
dents to climb the ladder.
Following the aforementioned words, ‘common sense’ is the key besides judgment
that clearly enhances the language production our learners might demonstrate lately
with their teachers’ instructions. In our solely Ecuadorian context, portraying this aspect
is quite complicated and such a challenge due to our cosmovision and inherited way of
thinking about life, discipline, and love for knowledge and learning. Apart from these
constraints, teaching in a country like this, is also a source of challenging situations where
you as an educator will learn and adapt yourself. Consequently, for me, after eight years
of teaching, it is paramount to keep learning and discovering ways and methods to under-
stand how our students learn and especially, how to reach their minds with meaningful
experiences based on reasoning and not just on pursuing a certificate from Cambridge or
any other company. On the other hand, it differs from other students around the globe,
I mean, we could not expect to have ideal classroom settings as we perceive in most of
the teaching books we learn along our professional formation. Our contexts, settings,
experiences, political and cultural issues, make our labor even more complex and intri-
cated, therefore, keeping up with AI tools will unequivocally support our work efforts
substantially (Al-Seghayer, 2017).
In all of these aspects mentioned previously, there is a question that immediately pops
up to our minds, of course, if you dedicate your life to elaborate on educational purposes.
This interrogation stands for the usefulness teachers have in the future of education. Will
our continuity be affected by ai development? Or are we going to be replaced by robots,
Figure 3. Flash cards
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The rise of AI in language education: a game changer for teaching English as a foreign language in Ecuador
androids or even different generative tools that could help students to learn faster and
better without our onsite assistance?
For better answering this question, let me recall some information mentioned by
(Schmidt & Strassner, 2022), whose statements acknowledge the need of teachers in a
utopia they set in the year 2040 where most of the materials used by our learners will be
interactive, multimedia settled, able to be connected to internet everywhere they go and
decide to work on, adapted to the needs they could face, like onsite or online classes. This
need comes from reflecting over the concept of well-trained teachers. Instructors which
main purpose would be to know, evolve, innovate, adapt, use technology and moreover,
set scenarios where individuals might learn significantly from the critical thinking skill
their teachers show.
In addition, we do not only possess information about ai and its full range of advan-
tages and disadvantages spread all over the web. As educators, it is our responsibility to
answer some important questions and reflections over the application of them in our spe-
cific contexts of teaching and learning. Let’s bullet point them for a better understanding
of their implications:
- Is our learning system able to use ai and learn about it?
- After deciding on using ai, is the tool(s) chosen aligned to students that have specific
educational needs?
- How our students are able to interact with others if any ai is included in their curricu-
lum? (Cardona et al., n. d.).
- Is all the information shared on the web through ai’s save and secure? And moreover,
how our students are protected? (Cardona et al., n. d.).
- How could teachers interact with ai’s so that they could feel it as an advantage and not
as their replacement?
- How willing are our teachers for learning and adapting themselves to the new loops of
teaching and learning that AIs bring within them?
- Is our context ready for this transition?
As complex as it seems to be, it also brings opportunities for enhancement and improve-
ment. We might then infer that our educational system has to evolve as new tools do ev-
ery day and consequently offer teachers a new perspective for sharing knowledge, content,
experiences, methods, approaches, practices, and even more; to center their efforts on stu-
dents as always. This new comprehension of ai should break the wall and bring calm to
those who consider that their jobs are running in danger, because it is far from the cur-
rent reality. Instead, we perhaps change people’s mindset and show them how resilient we
might become and teach them too that we could design, create, and evaluate, prepare and
reflect on our teaching, and actually do our teaching (Cardona et al., n. d.).
HOW ai CHANGED MY OVERVIEW OF TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN
LANGUAGE
In the last months using different tools related to artificial intelligence and its plugins; it
has been really impressive how the time management now goes around the concept of ‘sav-
ing’ instead of ‘consuming’. What I mean is that before knowing the existence of different
AI’s capable of solving routinary activities, like planning, creating exercises, or merely a
PowerPoint presentation, the teachers’ duties were complicated and time ‘consuming’ due
to the long hours needed to think, process, and later produce the content needed for each
class session. Consequently, having a great base of information and a program to solve it
based on a generative algorithm, is actually a game changer and precisely talking, it moved
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from using Chatgpt to alternatives that based on this language, they sort the information
to set a really useful outcome. In this list of alternatives, I have found apps like Gamma ai,
that works creating documents, presentations, and even landing web pages based on the
same concept of writing a prompt that fits the needs of the user. Another of the endless
apps there found on the web, we have Diffit for teachers ai, and what makes special the
use and application of this website, is the capacity it has to make a differentiation and ad-
aptation of the content and texts you input in order to lower the vocabulary complexity it
has and moreover the tone, style, aim, and even the text-type. In addition, here my favor-
ite by far, Twee ai, this artificial intelligence is basically something different, but keeping
the same fundamentals as the core. Using this ai, any efl or esl teacher may create using
generative text and a predefined bot, to create activities like fill in the gap, word forma-
tion, YouTube video exercises, summaries, and many others that are found in the stan-
dardized tests of English.
In the overall, using these tools, makes the administrative and lesson planning hours,
more adequate to fulfill them with more analysis, reflection, and critical thinking exercises.
It has, in my opinion, all the assets that I need to make the teaching-learning process easier
and more complete, meaningful, and fostering the feedback time for more students. In the
end, it even helps each one of my students to be assessed faster and with more information
embedded in the process.
CONCLUSION
The rise of ai in language education has the potential to be a game-changer for teaching
English as a foreign language in Ecuador. ai-powered tools can help to personalize learn-
ing, provide students with immediate feedback, and automate tasks such as grading and
lesson planning. This can free up teachers to focus on more strategic aspects of teaching,
such as providing support to students who need it most.
However, it is important to note that ai is not a silver bullet. It is important to use
ai tools in a thoughtful and intentional way, and to ensure that they are aligned with the
specific needs of students and the learning objectives of the curriculum. Additionally, it
is important to be aware of the potential biases that can be embedded in ai tools, and to
take steps to mitigate them.
In Ecuador, the use of ai in language education is still in its early stages. However,
there are a number of promising initiatives underway around the world that promise to
make this educational change a reality that will start on teachers later in the upcoming
years to a huge amount of students.
As a professional educator with experience teaching English as a foreign language in
Ecuador, I am excited about the potential of ai to improve the quality of education for all
students. I believe that ai has the potential to level the playing field and give all students
the opportunity to succeed in learning English.
Here are some specific ways that ai can be used to improve language education in Ecuador:
- Personalized learning: ai can be used to create personalized learning plans for each stu-
dent. This can be done by tracking student progress and identifying areas where they
need additional support. ai can then provide students with targeted instruction and
practice activities to help them improve their skills.
- Immediate feedback: ai can provide students with immediate feedback on their work.
This can be especially helpful for students who are struggling, as it can help them to
identify their errors and make corrections quickly.
- Automated tasks: AI can automate tasks such as grading and lesson planning. This can
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The rise of AI in language education: a game changer for teaching English as a foreign language in Ecuador
free up teachers to focus on more strategic aspects of teaching, such as providing
support to students who need it most.
- Adaptive learning: ai can be used to create adaptive learning materials that adjust to the
student’s individual needs and learning style. This can help to ensure that all students
are challenged and engaged in their learning.
I believe that ai has the potential to make a significant positive impact on language educa-
tion in Ecuador. By using ai tools in a thoughtful and intentional way, teachers can create
more personalized and effective learning experiences for their students.
REFERENCES
Al-Seghayer, K. (2017). The Central Characteristics of Successful esl/efl Teachers. Journal
of Language Teaching and Research, 8, 881. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0805.06
Cardona, M. A., Rodríguez, R. J., & Ishmael, K. (n. d.). Artificial Intelligence and the Future
of Teaching and Learning.
De Angelis, A. (2022). ef English Proficiency Index and English in Ecuador: Uncertain
assumptions of the international ranking. Revista Andina de Educación, 5(2) (2022)
005211. https://doi.org/10.32719/26312816.2022.5.2.11
Dp-language-b-guide (2020). International Baccalaureate Organization. Language b guide
of studies for the first call 2020.
El Universo. (2019, December 30). Ecuador, peor país de Latinoamérica en dominio de
inglés, según informe. El Universo.
ef Education First. (2021a). Company Fact Sheet 2021.
Holmes, W., Persson, J., Chounta, i.a., Wasson, B., & Dimitrova, V. (2022). Artificial intel-
ligence and education: A critical view through the lens of human rights, democracy, and the
rule of law. Council of Europe.
Janning, P., & Mertin, P. (2019). English b for the diploma. Coursebook. Pearson. Second
edition. isbn: 9781292270814.
McGowan, M., Owen Jung, H., & Deupree, A. (2019). English b for the ib diploma. Course-
book. Hodder education. isbn: 9781510446571.
Owen Jung, H. (2020). English b for the ib diploma. Grammar and skills workbook. Hodder
education. isbn: 9781510447639.
Philpot, B. (2018). English b for the diploma programme. Cambridge University Press
Coursebook. Second edition.
Regona et al. (2022). Components, types, and subfields of ai based on Regona et al. (2022).
Saa’d Aldin, K. & Morley, K. (2018). English b for the ib diploma. Second edition. Oxford
University Press. isbn: 9780198422365.
Schmidt, T., & Strassner, T. (2022). Artificial Intelligence in Foreign Language Learning
and Teaching. Anglistik, 33(1), 165-184. https://doi.org/10.3375/ANGL/2022/1/14
The European Council, C. (2023). The cefr Levels. The cefr Levels-Framework. https://www.
coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/level-descriptions
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Publicación Editorial
NORMAS DE PUBLICACIÓN
Los trabajos que se considerarán para su publicación en la revista Kronos deben tomar en
cuenta estas normas de publicación:
SOBRE EL CUERPO TEXTUAL
∙ En la portada, las colaboraciones deben hacer constar, en este orden: i) título del
artículo, ii) nombre del autor o autora acompañado del grado académico, iii) ads-
cripción institucional u organizacional, iv) dirección electrónica, y v) fecha de envío.
Los títulos no deben exceder de 20 palabras.
∙ En la siguiente página, toda colaboración —menos las reseñas— debe tener un resu-
men ejecutivo (abstract) de entre 150 y 200 palabras en castellano y en inglés. Bajo
los dos resúmenes se pone entre tres y cinco palabras clave.
∙ Todo el texto principal —incluso la primera hoja, las notas al final, la bibliografía—
tendrá una interlínea de 1,5 y se usará la tipografía Times New Roman, tamaño 12.
∙ Los párrafos no se espaciarán y se introducirá sangrado al inicio
∙ Márgenes: 2,5 cm por todos los lados de la hoja
∙ La bibliografía citada en el texto principal se colocará al final del trabajo con sangría francesa.
∙ La primera vez que aparezcan siglas deberá escribirse su significado completo, luego
solamente las siglas.
∙ La cantidad de figuras y tablas se limita a máximo tres elementos. Los editores de la revista
se reservan el derecho de eliminar los demás cuando sean usados de manera excesiva.
∙ Los títulos de figuras y tablas deben ser concisos, sin que superen las 8 palabras.
SOBRE LA EXTENSIÓN
La extensión de los textos puede medirse con número de palabras o número de hojas para
cada sección, tal cual se ilustra en el siguiente gráfico:
sección n.º palabras n.º hojas
Dossier 3000 a 6000 10 a 20
Experticia 2000 a 3000 6 a 10
Reseñas 1000 a 1500 3 a 5
REFERENCIAS
El estándar de las referencias bibliográficas al que se acoge y rige la revista Kronos es el
estilo apa en su séptima edición (2019). A manera de guía para las citas y la bibliografía,
se detalla a continuación los casos más comunes.
CITAS
La cita corta, que es de menos de cuarenta palabras, va dentro del cuerpo textual (párrafo).
Se la puede manejar de dos maneras:
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Publicación Editorial
∙ Con énfasis en el autor, cuya secuencia esquemática es: Apellido, (año), «cita», (página),
punto. Ejemplo:
Morales (2009) afirma: «lorem ipsum» (p. 8).
∙ Con énfasis en el texto, cuya secuencia esquemática es: «cita», (Apellido, año, página),
punto. Ejemplo:
«Morbi dolor sapien» (Morales, 2009, p. 68).
∙ La cita larga, que es de más de cuarenta palabras, va en párrafo aparte, sin cursiva ni
comillas y con sangría. Se la puede manejar —al igual que con las citas cortas— de
dos maneras:
∙ Con énfasis en el autor, cuya secuencia esquemática es: en párrafo precedente Apellido,
(año), cita en párrafo independiente, punto, (página). Ejemplo:
Morales (2009) afirma:
Quisque purus mauris, ullamcorper quis varius eu, placerat a felis. Aliquam consequat bibendum neque
eu efficitur. Vivamus scelerisque, purus et vestibulum efficitur, leo quam blandit neque, nec rutrum urna
urna in nunc. Sed diam nunc, porta vitae aliquet sed, dapibus at metus. Vestibulum at ex imperdiet,
luctus nisi eget, interdum purus. (p. 68)
∙ Con énfasis en el texto, cuya secuencia esquemática es: cita en párrafo independiente,
punto, (Apellido, año, página). Ejemplo:
Quisque purus mauris, ullamcorper quis varius eu, placerat a felis. Aliquam consequat bibendum neque
eu eftae aliquet sed, dapibus at metus. Vestibulum at ex imperdiet, luctus nisi eget, interdum purus.
(Morales, 2009, p. 68)
SOBRE LA DISPOSICIÓN TEXTUAL INTERIOR
Se jerarquizará la información para facilitar el ordenamiento del contenido de la siguiente
manera. Los encabezados no llevaran números, ni tampoco mayúsculas sostenidas.
Nivel 1: Encabezado centrado en negrita, con mayúsculas y minúsculas
Nivel 2: Encabezado alineado a la izquierda en negritas con mayúsculas y minúsculas
Nivel 3: Encabezado de párrafo con sangría, negritas, mayúsculas, minúsculas y punto final.
Nivel 4: Encabezado de párrafo con sangría, negritas, cursivas, mayúsculas, minúsculas
y punto final.
Nivel 5: Encabezado de párrafo con sangría, cursivas, mayúsculas, minúsculas y punto final.
NOTAS FINALES
La revista Kronos no utiliza pie de páginas. Todas las aclaraciones complementarias deben
ser puestas al final del documento como notas finales.
TABLAS Y FIGURAS
En el texto principal se incluirán tablas y figuras —con figuras entiéndase gráficos, mapas,
fotografías— si fuese necesario.
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Publicación Editorial
Las tablas deben tener en la parte superior la palabra Tabla, un número secuencial y un
título; en la parte inferior una Nota y la Fuente, si aplica. Ejemplo:
Tabla 1. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit
explicación categoría categoría categoría
Variable xxx xxx xxx
Variable xxx xxx xxx
Nota: Morbi dolor sapien, venenatis bibendum. Fuente: Morales (1995, p. 3).
∙ Las notas informan y ofrecen explicaciones relacionadas con la tabla. La cita de la
fuente —sea, libro, revista, página web, etc.— solo se la hace si la tabla no es de propia
autoría y siguiendo las normas de referencia expuestas.
∙ Las figuras deben tener en la parte superior la palabra Figura, un número secuen-
cial y un título; en la parte inferior una nota, si aplica, y —obligatoriamente— la
fuente. Ejemplo:
Figura 1. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit
explicación categoría categoría categoría
Variable xxx xxx xxx
Variable xxx xxx xxx
Nota: Morbi dolor sapien, venenatis bibendum. Fuente: Morales (1995, p. 3).
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ASPECTOS GENERALES
Cualquier situación no prevista en estas normas de publicación será resuelta por el
editor general.
Este
libro se terminó de diseñar
y diagramar para su versión digital
con tipografía Amiri tamaño 12 en Edito-
rial Universitaria en el mes de noviembre de
2023 siendo rector de la Universidad Central
del Ecuador el Dr. Fernando Sempérte-
gui Ontaneda y director de Editorial
Universitaria el Prof. Gustavo
Pazmiño.
ronos-The Teaching Journal es una revista
científica del Instituto Académico de Idio-
mas de la Universidad Central del Ecuador
de frecuencia bianual, cuyos campos de
investigación se concentran, pero no se limitan, a la búsqueda
de metodologías alternativas y novedosas en los procesos de
enseñanza-aprendizaje de lenguas, así como de la crítica del
corpus teórico alrededor de la pedagogía, didáctica, tecnología
y cultura.
107REVISTA KRONOS 4(2), agosto 2023-enero 2024 | pISSN 12631-2840 | eISSN 2631-2859
Jorge Quijano
ronos-The Teaching Journal es una revista
científica del Instituto Académico de Idio-
mas de la Universidad Central del Ecuador
de frecuencia bianual, cuyos campos de
investigación se concentran, pero no se limitan, a la búsqueda
de metodologías alternativas y novedosas en los procesos de
enseñanza-aprendizaje de lenguas, así como de la crítica del
corpus teórico alrededor de la pedagogía, didáctica, tecnología
y cultura.